Complicated Exchanges: The Handling of Authorised and Unauthorised Gifts

Abstract

The early modern idea of gift-giving primarily involved binding exchanges of a wide spectrum of objects with varying degrees of value. As a rule, a gift either resulted in a gift or favour in return, or expressed gratitude for a service rendered. A 1735 German encyclopedia by Johann Zedler explained: ‘Giving gifts and to receive something in return is thus not wrong ... [although] ... wisdom is required if one wishes one’s gifts to achieve the desired effect.’. While the fiction of altruistic gift-giving — corresponding to the courtly virtue of generosity — may have been maintained, there were distinct rules of gift-giving, attesting to a multitude of presents and occasions. By today’s definitions, such gifts could be classed as awards or rewards, bribes or payments. They ranged from private, individual presents for relatives or friends to prestigious, highly symbolic public presents. Some of these were gifts of honour (Ehrengaben), acknowledging peers or persons of higher status; others were known as ‘gifts of grace’ (Gnadengaben) and presented to those of lower rank, usually in recognition of some service or event. Then there were ceremonially regulated diplomatic gifts, donations to churches, monasteries and convents, prizes for festivals and contests, testamentary donations and so on. As the exchange of presents occurred purposefully, with a specified goal, it was subject to certain standards and ceremonies similar to those governing other courtly behaviour patterns. These rules were probably implicit; they were rarely written down. Occasionally there were infringements of rules, and these instances are especially revealing. Focusing principally on paintings, this paper considers the rules and handling of authorised and unauthorised royal gifts.

Schencken also, daß uns der andere wieder was dagegen erweise, ist gar nichts unrechtes (...) Es gehöret Klugheit dazu, wenn man seine Geschencke so anbringen will, daß sie die abgezielte Würckung thun. ‘Geschencke’, in Johann Heinrich Zedler, Grosses vollständiges Universal-Lexicon [...] , vol. 10 (1735, reprint, Graz, 1961), col. 1218.

Cf. Maureen Cassidy-Geiger and Jochen Vötsch, ‘Documents of Court Gifts Collected by Johann von Besser (1654–1729)’, Studies in the Decorative Arts 15, no. 1 (Autumn / Winter 2007–8), PP.114–77.