From “Long Yang” and “Dui Shi” to Tongzhi: Homosexuality in China

SUMMARY

Homosexuality was widespread, recognized and fairly tolerated, although not entirely accepted, in ancient China. After being invaded and defeated by the Western powers in the mid- to late nineteenth century, “progressive” Chinese intellectuals at the turn of the twentieth century believed that Chinese traditions were “backward” and the actual cause of China's defeat; they looked to Westernization as a cure for the nation. This occurred at a time when homosexuality was regarded as a psychiatric condition in the West. Consequently, a pathological view of homosexuality and other antihomosexual attitudes were adopted by the Chinese along with Western technology and other “progressive thoughts.” It was only after 1949 that homosexual behavior was seriously punished in China and served as grounds for persecution during Chinese political upheavals between the 1950s and 1970s. In the 1980s, the Chinese government's “open door” policy made it possible for the Chinese gay and lesbian community to develop; its bumpy journey since then reflected the fluctuation of the general political situation in China over the last two decades. Despite the official pathologizing position of Chinese psychiatry–the prevailing view until recently–starting in the late 1980s, gay-friendly scholars and health professionals began to sympathetically research gay (tongzhi) communities in China and to advocate for sexual minorities. In 2001, the latest edition of the Chinese Classification of Mental Disorders (CCMD-3) removed the diagnosis of homosexuality per se but still retained a diagnosis resembling ego-dystonic homosexuality. Nevertheless, the tongzhi community in China has much work left to do before achieving full civil rights.

KEYWORDS:

• Ancient China
• Chinese psychiatry
• diagnostic categories
• homosexuality
• lesbianism
• mental health professionals
• tongzhi