Introduction: Public Health and the Promise of Palestine

Abstract

This introductory essay contextualizes the special collection of papers on the pandemic and seeks to map the terrain of extant public health research on Palestine and the Palestinians. In addition, it is a contribution in Palestine studies to a nascent yet propulsive conversation that has been accelerated by Covid-19 on the erasure of structures of violence, including those of settler colonialism and racial capitalism, within the discipline of epidemiology. Using public health as an analytic, this essay asks us to consider foundational questions that have long been sidelined in the public health discourse on Palestine, including the implications for health and health research of eliding ongoing settler colonialism. Rather than ignoring and reproducing their violence, this essay seeks to tackle these questions head-on in an attempt to imagine a future public health research agenda that centers health, and not simply survivability, for all Palestinians.

• Palestinian health
• public health
• epidemiology
• pandemic
• Palestine
• settler colonialism
• racial capitalism
• Covid-19
• coronavirus
• Gaza
• West Bank
• Israel
• occupation
• decolonization

Acknowledgments

I would like to thank Mezna Qato for her thoughtful feedback on the ideas presented in this essay.

Notes

1 Elizabeth S. McClure et al., “Racial Capitalism within Public Health: How Occupational Settings Drive COVID-19 Disparities,” American Journal of Epidemiology, 3 July 2020, n.p., https://academic.oup.com/aje/article/doi/10.1093/aje/kwaa126/5866668; Rhea W. Boyd et al., “On Racism: A New Standard for Publishing on Racial Health Inequities,” Health Affairs Blog, 2 July 2020, https://www.healthaffairs.org/do/10.1377/hblog20200630.939347/full/.

2 WHO, “Constitution of World Health Organization” in Basic Documents, 49th ed. (Geneva: World Health Organization, 2020), p. 1. The definition has not been amended since 1948.

3 See W. E. B. DuBois, The Philadelphia Negro (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1899); Shobha Srinivasan and Shanita D. Williams, “Transitioning from Health Disparities to a Health Equity Research Agenda: The Time Is Now,” Public Health Reports 129, supp. 2 (2014): pp. 71–76, doi:10.1177/00333549141291S213; Commission on Social Determinants of Health, Closing the Gap in a Generation: Health Equity through Action on the Social Determinants of Health, WHO, 11 February 2008, https://www.who.int/social_determinants/final_report/csdh_ finalreport_2008.pdf.

4 Andy Clarno, Neoliberal Apartheid: Palestine/Israel and South Africa after 1994 (Chicago, IL: Chicago University Press, 2017), p. 167.

5 Bruce G. Link and Jo Phelan, “Social Conditions as Fundamental Causes of Disease,” Journal of Health and Social Behavior, Extra Issue: Forty Years of Medical Sociology; The State of the Art and Directions for the Future (1995): pp. 80–94; Omar Jabary Salamanca et al., “Past Is Present: Settler Colonialism in Palestine,” Settler Colonial Studies 2 no. 1, (2012): pp. 1–8.

6 See United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA), “Olive Harvest Season: Expected Record Yield Compromised Due to Access Restrictions and Settler Violence,” 19 November 2019, https://www.ochaopt.org/content/olive-harvest-season-expected-record-yield-compromised-due-access-restrictions-and-settler; Danya M. Qato and Ruhan Nagra, “Environmental and Public Health Effects of Polluting Industries in Tulkarm, West Bank, Occupied Palestinian Territory: An Ethnographic Study,” Special Issue 4, The Lancet 382, s29 (December 2013), doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(13)62601-X; Niveen M. E. Abu-Rmeileh et al., “Cancer Mortality in the West Bank, Occupied Palestinian Territory,” BMC Public Health 16, no. 76 (2016), https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-016-2715-8.

7 Jasbir K. Puar, The Right to Maim: Debility, Capacity, Disability (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2017).

8 Ruth W. Gilmore, “What Is to Be Done?” American Quarterly 63, no. 2 (2011): pp. 245–65.

9 Tahu Kukutai and John Taylor, eds., Indigenous Data Sovereignty: Toward an Agenda, Centre for Aboriginal Economic Policy Research (Canberra, Australia: Australian National University Press, 2016).

10 Sara Roy, The Gaza Strip: The Political Economy of De-development, 3rd ed. (Washington, DC: Institute for Palestine Studies, 2016).

11 WHO, Right to Health: 2018 (Cairo: WHO Regional Office for the Eastern Mediterranean, 2018), https://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/WHO_Right_to_health_2018_Web-final.pdf.

12 Palestinian National Institute of Public Health, Prevalence and Determinants of Malnutrition and Intestinal Infections among Children and Their Mothers in the Jordan Valley, 2016, https://www.pniph.org/public//uploads/A4%20Report.pdf; Michael Schoenbaum, Adel K. Afifi, and Richard J. Deckelbaum, Strengthening the Palestinian Health System (Santa Monica, CA: RAND Corporation, 2005), https://www.rand.org/pubs/monographs/MG311-1.html.

13 Elizabeth A. Willis, “Human and Health Rights of Palestinians in the Occupied Territories,” Medicine and War 7, no. 2 (1991): pp. 113–19.

14 WHO, “Shortages of Drugs and Medical Disposables in MoH Gaza, June 2011,” 20 June 2011, https://unispal.un.org/UNISPAL.nsf/47D4E277B48D9D3685256DDC00612265/B35E9E3AC0BFF630852578B5004B9C43; OCHA, “Gaza's Health Sector Struggles to Cope with Massive Influx of Casualties amid Pervasive Shortages,” 5 June 2018, https://www.ochaopt.org/content/gaza-s-health-sector-struggles-cope-massive-influx-casualties-amid-pervasive-shortages.

15 Emily Yates-Doerr, “Reworking the Social Determinants of Health: Responding to Material-Semiotic Indeterminacy in Public Health Interventions,” Medical Anthropology Quarterly (2020), https://doi.org/10.1111/maq.12586.

16 Nicholas J. Kassebaum et al., “Child and Adolescent Health from 1990 to 2015: Findings from the Global Burden of Diseases, Injuries, and Risk Factors 2015 Study,” JAMA Pediatrics 171, no. 6 (2017): pp. 573–92; Mohammad Marie, Ben Hannigan, and Aled Jones, “Mental Health Needs and Services in the West Bank, Palestine,” International Journal of Mental Health Systems 10, no. 23 (March 2016), https://doi.org/10.1186/s13033-016-0056-8; Ramzi Shawahna et al., “Prevalence and Factors Associated with Depressive and Anxiety Symptoms among Palestinian Medical Students,” BMC Psychiatry 20, no. 1 (2020): p. 244; Amal Jamee Shahwan et al., “Epidemiology of Coronary Artery Disease and Stroke and Associated Risk Factors in Gaza Community – Palestine,” PLOS ONE 14, no. 1 (January 2019), https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0211131; Rita Giacaman et al., “Health Status and Health Services in the Occupied Palestinian Territory,” The Lancet 373 (7 March 2019): pp. 837–49, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(09)60107-0.

17 Rita Giacaman, “Reflections on the Meaning of ‘Resilience’ in the Palestinian Context,” Journal of Public Health 42, no. 2 (2020): p. 440.

18 Claudia Wallis, “Why Racism, Not Race, Is a Risk Factor for Dying of COVID-19,” Scientific American, 12 June 2020, https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/why-racism-not-race-is-a-risk-factor-for-dying-of-covid-191/; Chandra L. Ford et al., Racism: Science and Tools for the Public Health Professional (Washington, DC: APHA Press, 2019).

19 For insights and references that illuminate these connections, see the thread, Arrianna Marie Planey (@Arrianna_Planey), “No, racism is not a Social Determinant of Health (SDoH). Racism is a root cause of the social arrangements that allocate life to some (white, wealthy, non-disabled), and premature death,” Twitter, 13 October 2019, 10:25 a.m., https://twitter.com/Arrianna_Planey/status/1183388248049094656.

20 Gilmore, “What Is to Be Done?”

21 Frederick P. Rivara and Laurence Finberg, “Use of the Terms Race and Ethnicity,” Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine 155, no. 2 (February 2001): p. 119, https://doi.org/10.1001/archpedi.155.2.119; Mindy T. Fullilove, “Comment: Abandoning ‘Race’ as a Variable in Public Health Research—An Idea Whose Time Has Come,” American Journal of Public Health 88, no. 9 (September 1998): pp. 1297–98.

22 Kaiser Health News, “Map: In Poor Baltimore Neighborhoods, Life Expectancy Similar to Developing Countries,” Kaiser Health News (blog), 16 February 2016, https://khn.org/news/map-in-poor-baltimore-neighborhoods-life-expectancy-similar-to-developing-countries/.

23 Lawrence Brown, “Two Baltimores: The White L vs. the Black Butterfly,” Baltimore Sun, 28 June 2016, https://www.baltimoresun.com/citypaper/bcpnews-two-baltimores-the-white-l-vs-the-black-butterfly-20160628-htmlstory.html.

24 Clea McNeely et al., “Human Insecurity, Chronic Economic Constraints and Health in the Occupied Palestinian Territory,” Global Public Health 9, no. 5 (May 2014): pp. 495–515, https://doi.org/10.1080/17441692.2014.903427.

25 McNeely et al., “Human Insecurity.” Italics for emphasis.

26 M. I. Singer et al., “Adolescents' Exposure to Violence and Associated Symptoms of Psychological Trauma,” JAMA: The Journal of the American Medical Association 273, no. 6 (February 1995): pp. 477–82; David P. Eisenman et al., “Mental Health and Health-Related Quality of Life among Adult Latino Primary Care Patients Living in the United States with Previous Exposure to Political Violence,” JAMA: The Journal of the American Medical Association 290, no. 5 (August 2003): pp. 627–34, https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.290.5.627.

27 Theodore M. Porter, Trust in Numbers: The Pursuit of Objectivity in Science and Public Life (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1995).

28 See John P. Leary, “Resilience Is the Goal of Governments and Employers Who Expect People to Endure Crisis,” TeenVogue.com, 1 July 2020, https://www.teenvogue.com/story/whats-wrong-with-focus-on-resilience; Brendan C. Browne, “Stop Telling Palestinians to Be ‘Resilient’—The Rest of the World Has Failed Them,” The Conversation, 14 May 2018, https://theconversation.com/stop-telling-palestinians-to-be-resilient-the-rest-of-the-world-has-failed-them-96587.

29 This has elements of the necropolitical in the ways that it can potentially foreclose the possibility of health policy that is more just. This essay, however, is less concerned with unpacking the necropolitical and more with establishing and pushing public health scholarship toward a broader structural analysis on health that does not elide the violence of settler colonialism and racial capitalism.

30 WHO, “Rolling Updates on Coronavirus Disease (COVID-19),” 29 June 2020, https://www.who.int/emergencies/diseases/novel-coronavirus-2019/events-as-they-happen.

31 Medical Aid for Palestinians, “Ongoing Nakba amid the Pandemic: Further Catastrophe Looms for Palestinian Refugees Unless International Support Is Maintained,” 15 May 2020, https://www.map.org.uk/news/archive/post/1117-ongoing-nakba-amid-the-pandemic-further-catastrophe-looms-for-palestinian-refugees-unless-international-support-is-maintained; Zaha Hassan and Hallaamal Keir, “It's up to Israel to Stop a Coronavirus Catastrophe among Palestinians,” Foreign Policy, 30 March 2020, https://foreignpolicy.com/2020/03/30/its-up-to-israel-to-stop-a-coronavirus-catastrophe-among-palestinians/.

32 UN, “Gaza ‘Unliveable,’ UN Special Rapporteur for the Situation of Human Rights in the OPT Tells Third Committee,” press release GA/SHC/4242, 24 October 2018, https://www.un.org/unispal/document/gaza-unliveable-un-special-rapporteur-for-the-situation-of-human-rights-in-the-opt-tells-third-committee-press-release-excerpts/.

33 Belén Fernández, “Israel Has Already Made Gaza Unlivable. Now the Coronavirus Is Coming,” Jacobin, 31 March 2020, https://www.jacobinmag.com/2020/03/gaza-strip-israel-palestine-coronavirus-crisis.

34 Mariam Barghouti, “Palestinians Are Facing Coronavirus inside a Lion's Den,” +972 Magazine, 27 April 2020, https://www.972mag.com/palestinian-health-coronavirus-lions-den/.

35 Bram Wispelwey and Amaya Al-Orzza, “Underlying Conditions,” LRB blog, 18 April 2020, https://www.lrb.co.uk/blog/2020/april/underlying-conditions.

36 Mohammed Najib and David M. Halbfinger, “Palestinians Fear a Coming Coronavirus Storm,” New York Times, 9 April 2020, https://www.nytimes.com/2020/04/09/world/middleeast/coronavirus-palestinians-israel-gaza-west-bank.html.

37 Dorothy Roberts, Fatal Invention: How Science, Politics, and Big Business Re-create Race in the Twenty-First Century (New York: New Press, 2011).

38 Cedric J. Robinson, Black Marxism: The Making of the Black Radical Tradition (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2000); Steven Salaita, Inter/Nationalism: Decolonizing Native America and Palestine (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2016).

39 Rishi K. Wadhera et al., “Variation in COVID-19 Hospitalizations and Deaths across New York City Boroughs,” JAMA: The Journal of the American Medical Association 323, no. 21 (April 2020): pp. 2192–95, https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2020.7197.

40 Timothy M. Smith, “Why COVID-19 Is Decimating Some Native American Communities,” American Medical Association, 13 May 2020, https://www.ama-assn.org/delivering-care/population-care/why-covid-19-decimating-some-native-american-communities; Matthew A. Raifman and Julia R. Raifman, “Disparities in the Population at Risk of Severe Illness from COVID-19 by Race/Ethnicity and Income,” American Journal of Preventive Medicine 59, no. 1 (July 2020): pp. 137–39, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amepre.2020.04.003.

41 Nick Estes, “The Empire of All Maladies,” The Baffler no. 52, 6 July 2020, https://thebaffler.com/salvos/the-empire-of-all-maladies-estes.

42 Eve Tuck and K. Wayne Yang, “Decolonization Is Not a Metaphor,” Decolonization: Indigeneity, Education and Society 1, no. 1 (2012): pp. 1–40.

43 Theresa M. Beckie, “A Systematic Review of Allostatic Load, Health, and Health Disparities,” Biological Research for Nursing 14, no. 4 (2012): pp. 311–46, https://doi.org/10.1177/1099800412455688; O. Kenrik Duru et al., “Allostatic Load Burden and Racial Disparities in Mortality,” Journal of the National Medical Association 104, nos. 1–2 (2012): pp. 89–95, https://doi.org/10.1016/s0027-9684(15)30120-6.

44 Gregor von Medeazza, “Searching for Clean Water in Gaza,” 10 January 2019, UNICEF Connect, https://blogs.unicef.org/blog/searching-clean-water-gaza/.

45 Al Jazeera,“Gaza's Electricity Crisis,” 19 June 2017, https://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/interactive/2017/06/gaza-electricity-crisis-170618112834986.html.

46 Johns Hopkins University of Medicine, “Coronavirus Resource Center,” COVID-19 Dashboard by the Center for Systems Science and Engineering (CSSE) at Johns Hopkins University (JHU), https://coronavirus.jhu.edu/map.html.

47 Audre Lorde, “A Litany for Survival,” in The Collected Poems of Audre Lorde (New York: W. W. Norton and Company, 1997).

48 Mohammed AlKhaldi et al., “Health System's Response to the COVID-19 Pandemic in Conflict Settings: Policy Reflections from Palestine,” Global Public Health 15, no. 8 (2020), https://doi.org/10.1080/17441692.2020.1781914.

49 Alaa Tartir and Yara Hawari, Palestine and COVID-19: Global Standards, Local Constraints, MidEast Policy Brief 7 (Oslo: The Peace Research Institute Oslo, 2020).

50 WHO, “Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) in the Occupied Palestinian Territory,” https://app.powerbi.com/view?r=eyJrIjoiODJlYWM1YTEtNDAxZS00OTFlLThkZjktNDA1ODY2OGQ3NGJkIiwidCI6I mY2MTBjMGI3LWJkMjQtNGIzOS04MTBiLTNkYzI4MGFmYjU5MCIsImMiOjh9.

51 B'Tselem, “During the Coronavirus Crisis, Israel Confiscates Tents Designated for Clinic in the Northern West Bank,” 26 March 2020, https://www.btselem.org/press_release/20200326_israel_confiscates_ clinic_tents_during_coronavirus_crisis.

52 Institute for Palestine Studies, Arabic-language blog series on Covid-19, available at https://www.palestine-studies.org/ar/blogs.

53 Bisan Center for Research and Development is a Palestinian-led nongovernmental organization based in the West Bank that promotes development programs with an “emancipatory approach” designed to contribute “to the creation of a social movement.” See “About Bisan Center,” http://www.bisan.org/about-bisan/. As of July 2020, Aboudi was one of several Palestinian scientists and cultural leaders held in detention by the Israeli government.

54 Ubai Aboudi, “Al-haqq fi al-suhha wa ja'ihat al-kuruna: Al-ribh fawq al-hayat” (The right to health and the corona pandemic: Profit over life), Bisan Center for Research and Development, 23 April 2020, https://bit.ly/2EE6wKT; Clyde W. Yancy, “COVID-19 and African Americans,” JAMA: The Journal of the American Medical Association 323, no. 19 (April 2020): pp. 1891–92, https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2020.6548.

55 Richard A. Oppel Jr. et al., “The Fullest Look Yet at the Racial Inequity of Coronavirus,” New York Times, 5 July 2020, https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2020/07/05/us/coronavirus-latinos-african-americans-cdc-data.html.

56 Whitney N. Laster Pirtle, “Racial Capitalism: A Fundamental Cause of Novel Coronavirus (COVID-19) Pandemic Inequities in the United States,” Health Education and Behavior 47, no. 4 (August 2020): pp. 504–8; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, “Health Equity Considerations and Racial and Ethnic Minority Groups,” 24 July 2020, https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/need-extra-precautions/racial-ethnic-minorities.html.

57 Steven W. Thrasher, “An Uprising Comes from the Viral Underclass,” Slate, 12 June 2020, https://slate.com/news-and-politics/2020/06/black-lives-matter-viral-underclass.html.

58 B'Tselem, “Statistics on Palestinians in the Custody of the Israeli Security Forces,” 30 June 2020, https://www.btselem.org/statistics/detainees_and_prisoners.

59 Ala Alazzeh, “Seeking Popular Participation: Nostalgia for the First Intifada in the West Bank,” Settler Colonial Studies 5, no. 3 (April 2015): pp. 251–67; Lisa Taraki, ed., Living Palestine: Family Survival, Resistance, and Mobility under Occupation (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 2006); Lamis Abu Nahleh, “Six Families: Survival and Mobility in Times of Crisis,” in Living Palestine, ed. Taraki, pp. 103–84; Salim Tamari, “The Transformation of Palestinian Society: Fragmentation and Occupation,” in Palestinian Society in Gaza, West Bank and Arab Jerusalem: A Survey of Living Conditions, ed. Marianne Heiberg and Geir Øvensen (Oslo: FAFO, 1993), pp. 21–33.

60 My maternal aunts, Wadiha Tibi and Sabah Tibi, embody this form of community care in their everyday lives. I am grateful to be welcomed into that mutual aid network whenever I return home.

61 Mandy Turner, ed., From the River to the Sea: Palestine and Israel in the Shadow of “Peace” (Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2019).

62 Raja Khalidi and Sobhi Samour, “Neoliberalism as Liberation: The Statehood Program and the Remaking of the Palestinian National Movement,” JPS 40, no. 2 (Winter 2011): pp. 6–25.

63 Director-General of WHO, Health Conditions in the Occupied Palestinian Territory, Including East Jerusalem, and in the Occupied Syrian Golan, WHO, A72/33, 1 May 2019, https://apps.who.int/gb/ebwha/pdf_files/WHA72/A72_33-en.pdf; Orly Almi, Captive Economy, the Pharmaceutical Industry and the Israeli Occupation, Who Profits, March 2012, https://whoprofits.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/06/old/captive_economy.pdf.

64 Rami Alabadla (head of Infection Control Department), in conversation with the author, 18 June 2020, Gaza Ministry of Health.

65 In addition to foisting its monopoly on the Palestinians, the Israeli pharmaceutical industry plays a pivotal role in the political economy of health care in the United States. A glaring example of this, which underscores the interconnectedness of structures of violence and global capital that foreclose health, can be found in the Israeli pharmaceutical company Teva. Teva is the largest generics manufacturer in the world and coordinates efforts with other pharmaceutical multinationals (under the umbrella of the powerful Pharmaceutical Research and Manufacturers of America lobby) against drug pricing limits in the United States. For further reading, see Robert Pear, “Brand-Name Drug Makers Wary of Letting Generic Rival Join Their Club,” New York Times, 1 July 2016, https://www.nytimes.com/2016/07/02/business/brand-name-drug-makers-wary-of-letting-generic-rival-join-their-club.html?_r=0; and Citizens for Responsibility and Ethics in Washington, “A Bitter Pill: How Big Pharma Lobbies to Keep Perscription Drug Prices High,” https://www.citizensforethics.org/a-bitter-pill-how-big-pharma-lobbies-to-keep-prescription-drug-prices-high/.

66 World Bank Group, Economic Monitoring Report to the Ad Hoc Liaison Committee, 2 June 2020, http://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/844141590600764047/pdf/Economic-Monitoring-Report-to-the-Ad-Hoc-Liaison-Committee.pdf.

67 World Bank Group, Economic Monitoring Report.

68 Middle East Monitor, “Palestine Government, Union Agree to End Medical Strike,” 6 March 2020, https://www.middleeastmonitor.com/20200306-palestine-government-union-agree-to-end-medical-strike/.

69 The World Bank, “West Bank and Gaza,” https://data.worldbank.org/country/PS and “Israel,” https://data.worldbank.org/country/israel.

70 Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics (PCBS), PCBS homepage, http://www.pcbs.gov.ps/default.aspx.

71 The Palestinian National Institute of Public Health, “Overview of Public Health in Palestine,” https://www.pniph.org/en/about.

72 Director-General of WHO, Health Conditions in the Occupied Palestinian Territory, A72/33.

73 Mor Efrat, Divide and Conquer: Inequality in Health, Physicians for Human Rights Israel, January 2015, https://www.phr.org.il/wp-content/uploads/2016/04/Divide-And-Conquer.pdf.

74 Muhammad M. Haj-Yahia, Ora Nakash, and Itshak Levav, eds., Mental Health and Palestinian Citizens in Israel (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2019).

75 Efrat, Divide and Conquer.

76 Marwan Mosleh, Koustuv Dalal, and Yousef Aljeesh, “Burden of Chronic Diseases in the Palestinian Health-Care Sector Using Disability-Adjusted Life-Years,” The Lancet 391, s21, 21 February 2018, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(18)30346-5.

77 WHO, Right to Health: 2018; Al-Haq, Jerusalem Aid for Human Rights, and Medical Aid for Palestinians, COVID-19 and the Systematic Neglect of Palestinians in East Jerusalem, policy brief, July 2020, http://www.alhaq.org/cached_uploads/download/2020/07/14/covid-19-ver1-4-interactrive-1594716699.pdf.

78 Mehul Srivastava, “The Arab Medics Battling Coronavirus in Israel's Divided Society,” Financial Times, 17 April 2020, https://www.ft.com/content/f193a9b9-c3a0-4da2-9a26-be4a92f99006.

79 Miguel A. Hernán and James Robins, Causal Inference: What If (Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 2020).

80 Arundhati Roy, “Arundhati Roy: ‘The Pandemic Is a Portal,’” Financial Times, 3 April 2020, https://www.ft.com/content/10d8f5e8-74eb-11ea-95fe-fcd274e920ca.

81 Patrick Wolfe, “Settler Colonialism and the Elimination of the Native,” Journal of Genocide Research 8, no. 4 (2006): pp. 387–409, https://doi.org/10.1080/14623520601056240.

82 Ruha Benjamin, Race after Technology: Abolitionist Tools for the New Jim Code (Medford, MA: Polity Press, 2019).

83 Mayssoun Sukarieh and Stuart Tannock, “On the Problem of Over-Researched Communities: The Case of the Shatila Palestinian Refugee Camp in Lebanon,” Sociology 47, no. 3 (2013): pp. 494–508.