Gender disparity in cardiovascular disease: bias or biology?

Abstract

This article addresses gender disparity in cardiovascular disease, with selected examples used to explore whether these disparities represent bias, biology or both. Gender-specific basic and clinical cardiovascular research is needed to address these issues, with rigorous application required for the emerging knowledge. These explorations offer promise to improve cardiovascular outcomes for women and are the basis for the application of gender-based evaluation of pathophysiology, clinical presentations, preventive interventions, diagnostic strategies, therapies and outcomes of cardiovascular disease in women.

Keywords::

• arrhythmia
• coronary heart disease
• gender disparity
• heart failure

Financial & competing interest disclosure

The author has no relevant affiliations or financial involvement with any organization or entity with a financial interest in or financial conflict with the subject matter or materials discussed in the manuscript. This includes employment, consultancies, honoraria, stock ownership or options, expert testimony, grants or patents received or pending, or royalties.

No writing assistance was utilized in the production of this manuscript.