https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2985-3958
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Abstract
Background
Prior research has revealed notable declines in health-related quality of life (HRQoL) and substantial psychological impacts among individuals infected with COVID-19. However, there is a noticeable gap in studies addressing the enduring long-term effects of COVID-19 on HRQoL and psychological well-being.
Objective
The current study investigated and compared short and long-term effects of COVID-19 on HRQoL and psychological outcomes among the Saudi population.
Methods
The Arabic version of the SF-36 questionnaire was used to assess HRQoL while Anxiety and depression were evaluated by the Hamilton Anxiety (HAM-A) and Depression Scales (HDRS). Participants (n=292) were categorized into three groups: the “never-been-infected” group (n=134), the “one-year infected group” (n=43), and the “more than one year infected” group (n=115). Descriptive statistics were presented using numerical values and frequencies. To compare the groups, a one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) test was used.
Results
Most SF-36 domains exhibited lower values while HAM-A and HDRS values were higher in individuals infected during last year compared to those who never infected. Social functioning subscale of the SF-36 showed a significant difference between the groups (F (2.289) = 6.094, p = 0.01) and the effect size was d = 0.95. Pairwise comparison showed a significant reduction in the social functioning component of SF-36 in “one-year group” compared to both groups “never-been-infected” group (mean difference −13.58 (4.40–22.76) p < 0.01) and “more than one year infected” group (mean difference −10.80 (1.44–20.16) p = 0.02). HAM-A and HDRS scores showed mild levels of anxiety (<17 score) and depression (8 to 16 score) in all groups.
Conclusion
The influence of COVID-19 on psychological well-being and HRQoL is significant regardless of whether individuals infected with the virus. Overall, the consistent presence of mild anxiety and depression across all groups highlights the need for a holistic approach to mental health.
Plain Language Summary
In this study, we looked at how COVID-19 infection affected the quality of life and mental well-being of people in Saudi Arabia in both the short and long term. We used surveys to measure quality of life, anxiety, and depression among 292 participants, categorizing them based on whether they had never been infected, were infected within the last year, or were infected more than one year ago. The results showed that individuals who were infected in the last year had lower scores in various aspects of quality of life and higher levels of anxiety and depression compared to those who had never been infected.
Although mild levels of anxiety and depression were found in all groups. The study suggests that there is an impact on mental health in individuals even one year post-infection compared to never infected individuals. This highlights the importance of ongoing mental health support for individuals who have experienced the virus. Overall, the study emphasizes the need for a comprehensive approach to mental health care that considers both those who have been infected and those who have not.
Abbreviations
SF-36, Short Form 36 Health Survey Questionnaire; HAM-A, Hamilton Anxiety Rating Scale; HDRS, Hamilton depression rating scale; HRQoL, Health-related quality of life; COVID-19, Coronavirus disease 2019; ANOVA, Analysis of variance; SPSS, Statistical Package for the Social Sciences.
Data Sharing Statement
The datasets generated and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.
Ethics Approval and Informed Consent
The study was conducted in accordance with the principles outlined in the Declaration of Helsinki. Ethical approval was gained for the current study from the ethical committee of Hail University under the ethics number H-2021-236. Informed consent was obtained from every study participant before the commencement of data collection.
Acknowledgments
We would like our thanks to the Scientific Research Deanship at the University of Ha’il - Saudi Arabia for supporting this project through project number RG-21058.
Author Contributions
All authors made a significant contribution to the work reported, whether that is in the conception, study design, execution, acquisition of data, analysis, and interpretation, or all these areas; took part in drafting, revising, or critically reviewing the article; gave final approval of the version to be published; have agreed on the journal to which the article has been submitted; and agree to be accountable for all aspects of the work.
Disclosure
The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest in this work.