Accounting for sex differences in PTSD: A multi-variable mediation model

Abstract

Background

Approximately twice as many females as males are diagnosed with posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). However, little is known about why females report more PTSD symptoms than males. Prior studies have generally focused on few potential mediators at a time and have often used methods that were not ideally suited to test for mediation effects. Prior research has identified a number of individual risk factors that may contribute to sex differences in PTSD severity, although these cannot fully account for the increased symptom levels in females when examined individually.

Objective

The present study is the first to systematically test the hypothesis that a combination of pre-, peri-, and posttraumatic risk factors more prevalent in females can account for sex differences in PTSD severity.

Method

The study was a quasi-prospective questionnaire survey assessing PTSD and related variables in 73.3% of all Danish bank employees exposed to bank robbery during the period from April 2010 to April 2011. Participants filled out questionnaires 1 week (T₁, N=450) and 6 months after the robbery (T₂, N=368; 61.1% females). Mediation was examined using an analysis designed specifically to test a multiple mediator model.

Results

Females reported more PTSD symptoms than males and higher levels of neuroticism, depression, physical anxiety sensitivity, peritraumatic fear, horror, and helplessness (the A₂ criterion), tonic immobility, panic, dissociation, negative posttraumatic cognitions about self and the world, and feeling let down. These variables were included in the model as potential mediators. The combination of risk factors significantly mediated the association between sex and PTSD severity, accounting for 83% of the association.

Conclusions

The findings suggest that females report more PTSD symptoms because they experience higher levels of associated risk factors. The results are relevant to other trauma populations and to other trauma-related psychiatric disorders more prevalent in females, such as depression and anxiety.

• Posttraumatic stress disorder
• gender differences
• multiple mediators
• risk factors
• predictors
• robbery
• interpersonal violence

For the abstract or full text in other languages, please see Supplementary files under ‘Article Tools’

For the abstract or full text in other languages, please see Supplementary files under ‘Article Tools’

Acknowledgements

The authors thank the Danish Bankers Association and the National Bank of Denmark for co-funding this project. The authors also thank Ask Elklit, head of the National Center for Psychotraumatology, University of Southern Denmark, for his advice and general support.

Conflict of interest and funding

There is no conflict of interest in the present study for any of the authors.

Notes

For the abstract or full text in other languages, please see Supplementary files under ‘Article Tools’