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Abstract
The history of the rise of markets is also the history of individual and collective attempts to rise above them. First, it is possible to amass so much wealth on markets that one has the wherewithal to retreat from the competitive world and lead the life of a gentleman. Second, independence from markets can be created entirely from within them and without retreating into the sphere of leisure. The entrepreneur stands for this type of accomplishment. Third, there is a mode of rising above markets that involves establishing collective control. Historically, this has been called ‘emancipation’. The article argues that Europe has taken leave of this idea in favour of an individualised and entrepreneurial form of liberation that goes by the name of ‘empowerment’.