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Original Articles

Gamma Hydroxybutyrate (GHB) and Gamma Butyrolactone (GBL) Withdrawal: Five Case Studies

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Pages 143-149 | Published online: 06 Sep 2011

Keep up to date with the latest research on this topic with citation updates for this article.

Read on this site (14)

Leo J Schep, Kai Knudsen, Robin J Slaughter, J Allister Vale & Bruno Mégarbane. (2012) The clinical toxicology of gamma-hydroxybutyrate, gamma-butyrolactone and 1,4-butanediol. Clinical Toxicology 50:6, pages 458-470.
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L.A.R. Stein, Rebecca Lebeau, Mary Clair, Rosemarie Martin, Monte Bryant & Susan Storti. (2012) Preliminary Web-Based Measures Development for GHB: Expectancies, Functions, and Withdrawal. The American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse 38:2, pages 121-129.
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I. B. Anderson, S. Y. Kim-Katz, J. E. Dyer & P. D. Blanc. (2010) The impact of gamma hydroxybutyrate (GHB) legal restrictions on patterns of use: Results from an International Survey. Drugs: Education, Prevention and Policy 17:5, pages 455-469.
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J. G. O'Toole, M. R. Kristian, L. Devereux & R. Kurien. (2009) Gamma‐hydroxybutyrate dependence in a rural setting in Wales. Journal of Substance Use 14:1, pages 70-74.
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Jane Carlisle Maxwell & Richard T. Spence. (2005) Profiles of Club Drug Users in Treatment. Substance Use & Misuse 40:9-10, pages 1409-1426.
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Louisa Degenhardt, Jan Copeland & Paul Dillon. (2005) Recent Trends in the Use of “Club Drugs”: An Australian Review. Substance Use & Misuse 40:9-10, pages 1241-1256.
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Jane Carlisle Maxwell. (2005) Party Drugs: Properties, Prevalence, Patterns, and Problems. Substance Use & Misuse 40:9-10, pages 1203-1240.
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Gena Covell Britt & Elinore F. McCance-Katz. (2005) A Brief Overview of the Clinical Pharmacology of “Club Drugs”. Substance Use & Misuse 40:9-10, pages 1189-1201.
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Alvaro Camacho, Scott C. Matthews, Brian Murray & Joel E. Dimsdale. (2005) Use of GHB Compounds Among College Students. The American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse 31:4, pages 601-607.
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RobertS. Gable. (2004) Acute Toxic Effects of Club Drugs. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs 36:3, pages 303-313.
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Gerald Chew & Antonio Fernando$suffix/text()$suffix/text(). (2004) Epileptic seizure in GHB withdrawal. Australasian Psychiatry 12:4, pages 410-411.
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Karen Miotto, Jack Darakjian, Janice Basch, Shanna Murray, Jennifer Zogg, Richard Rawson, Karen Miotto, Jack Darakjian, Janice Basch, Shanna Murray, Jennifer Zogg & Richard Rawson. (2001) Gamma-Hydroxybutyric Acid: Patterns of Use, Effects and Withdrawal. American Journal on Addictions 10:3, pages 232-241.
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Articles from other publishers (47)

Laurent Karila, Bernard Angerville, Amine Benyamina & Joël Billieux. (2024) Pharmacological Treatment of GHB Withdrawal Syndrome. Current Addiction Reports 11:1, pages 163-171.
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Hans H. de Boer, Judith Fronczek & Melanie S. Archer. (2023) More on: ‘the role of restraint in fatal excited delirium syndrome’. Forensic Science, Medicine and Pathology.
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Michael D. Freeman, Ellen M. F. Strömmer, Wendy M. Leith & Maurice P. Zeegers. (2023) Response to “Scrutinizing the causal link between excited delirium syndrome and restraint – a commentary on: ‘The role of restraint in fatal excited delirium: a research synthesis and pooled analysis’ by E.M.F. Strömmer, W. Leith, M.P. Zeegers and M.D. Freeman”. Forensic Science, Medicine and Pathology 19:4, pages 605-612.
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Hans H. de Boer, Judith Fronczek & Melanie S. Archer. (2023) Scrutinizing the causal link between excited delirium syndrome and restraint: a commentary on ‘The role of restraint in fatal excited delirium: a research synthesis and pooled analysis’ by E.M.F. Strömmer, W. Leith, M.P. Zeegers, and M.D. Freeman. Forensic Science, Medicine and Pathology 19:4, pages 613-616.
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Icro Maremmani, Matteo Pacini & Angelo G. I. MaremmaniIcro Maremmani, Matteo Pacini & Angelo G. I. Maremmani. 2023. Dual Disorder Heroin Addicts. Dual Disorder Heroin Addicts 183 195 .
Arianna Giorgetti, Francesco Paolo Busardò & Raffaele Giorgetti. (2022) Toxicological Characterization of GHB as a Performance-Enhancing Drug. Frontiers in Psychiatry 13.
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Ellen M. F. Strömmer, Wendy Leith, Maurice P. Zeegers & Michael D. Freeman. (2020) The role of restraint in fatal excited delirium: a research synthesis and pooled analysis. Forensic Science, Medicine and Pathology 16:4, pages 680-692.
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Sonia Habibian, Keith Ahamad, Mark McLean & Maria Eugenia Socias. (2019) Successful Management of Gamma-hydroxybutyrate (GHB) Withdrawal Using Baclofen as a Standalone Therapy: A Case Report. Journal of Addiction Medicine 13:5, pages 415-417.
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Harmen Beurmanjer, Rama M. Kamal, Cor A. J. de Jong, Boukje A. G. Dijkstra & Arnt F. A. Schellekens. (2018) Baclofen to Prevent Relapse in Gamma-Hydroxybutyrate (GHB)-Dependent Patients: A Multicentre, Open-Label, Non-Randomized, Controlled Trial. CNS Drugs 32:5, pages 437-442.
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Christopher N. Floyd, David M. Wood & Paul I. Dargan. (2017) Baclofen in gamma-hydroxybutyrate withdrawal: patterns of use and online availability. European Journal of Clinical Pharmacology 74:3, pages 349-356.
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I. B. Zabolotskikh, N. V. Trembach, A. V. Butrov, E. S. Gorobets, E. V. Grigoriev, K. M. Lebedinsky, A. Yu. Lubnin, A. M. Ovezov, A. M. Ovechkin & A. V. Shchegolev. (2018) Perioperative management of patients with drug dependence. Anesteziologiya i Reanimatologiya:1-2, pages 133.
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Douglas L. Blowey. 2018. Pediatric Hypertension. Pediatric Hypertension 617 627 .
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Rama M. Kamal, Martijn S. van Noorden, Wim Wannet, Harmen Beurmanjer, Boukje A. G. Dijkstra & Arnt Schellekens. (2016) Pharmacological Treatment in γ-Hydroxybutyrate (GHB) and γ-Butyrolactone (GBL) Dependence: Detoxification and Relapse Prevention. CNS Drugs 31:1, pages 51-64.
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David M. Wood. 2017. Critical Care Toxicology. Critical Care Toxicology 1555 1586 .
Douglas L. Blowey. 2017. Pediatric Hypertension. Pediatric Hypertension 1 11 .
David M. Wood. 2016. Critical Care Toxicology. Critical Care Toxicology 1 32 .
John M. Corkery, Barbara Loi, Hugh Claridge, Christine Goodair, Ornella Corazza, Simon Elliott & Fabrizio Schifano. (2015) Gamma hydroxybutyrate (GHB), gamma butyrolactone (GBL) and 1,4-butanediol (1,4-BD; BDO): A literature review with a focus on UK fatalities related to non-medical use. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews 53, pages 52-78.
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Jan van Amsterdam, Tibor Brunt, Ed Pennings & Wim van den Brink. (2014) Risk assessment of GBL as a substitute for the illicit drug GHB in the Netherlands. A comparison of the risks of GBL versus GHB. Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology 70:2, pages 507-513.
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Christopher D Smith & Stefanie Robert. (2014) ‘Designer drugs’: update on the management of novel psychoactive substance misuse in the acute care setting. Clinical Medicine 14:4, pages 409-415.
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LUCIO GHIO, ALICE CERVETTI, MATTEO RESPINO, MARTINO BELVEDERI MURRI & MARIO AMORE. (2014) Management and Treatment of Gamma Butyrolactone Withdrawal Syndrome. Journal of Psychiatric Practice 20:4, pages 294-300.
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Donald G. Barceloux. 2012. Medical Toxicology of Drug Abuse. Medical Toxicology of Drug Abuse 89 109 .
Samuel DeMariaJr.Jr.. 2012. Perioperative Addiction. Perioperative Addiction 111 128 .
H. Andresen, B. E. Aydin, A. Mueller & S. Iwersen‐Bergmann. (2011) An overview of gamma‐hydroxybutyric acid: pharmacodynamics, pharmacokinetics, toxic effects, addiction, analytical methods, and interpretation of results. Drug Testing and Analysis 3:9, pages 560-568.
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David M. Wood, Alan D. Brailsford & Paul I. Dargan. (2011) Acute toxicity and withdrawal syndromes related to gamma‐hydroxybutyrate (GHB) and its analogues gamma‐butyrolactone (GBL) and 1,4‐butanediol (1,4‐BD). Drug Testing and Analysis 3:7-8, pages 417-425.
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James Bell & Rodney Collins. (2010) Gamma‐butyrolactone (GBL) dependence and withdrawal. Addiction 106:2, pages 442-447.
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Jørgen Bramness & Siren Haugland. (2011) Misbruk av gammahydroksybutyrat. Tidsskrift for Den norske legeforening 131:21, pages 2122-2125.
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Janis M. Miyasaki. 2011. Hyperkinetic Movement Disorders. Hyperkinetic Movement Disorders 335 346 .
Laurent Karila, Johanne Novarin, Bruno Megarbane, Olivier Cottencin, Sylvain Dally, William Lowenstein & Michel Reynaud. (2009) Acide gamma-hydroxy-butyrique (GHB) : plus qu’un agent de soumission chimique, une véritable source d’addiction. La Presse Médicale 38:10, pages 1526-1538.
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Lawrence P. Carter, Daniel Pardi, Jane Gorsline & Roland R. Griffiths. (2009) Illicit gamma-hydroxybutyrate (GHB) and pharmaceutical sodium oxybate (Xyrem®): Differences in characteristics and misuse. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 104:1-2, pages 1-10.
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Lawrence P. Carter, Wouter Koek & Charles P. France. (2009) Behavioral analyses of GHB: Receptor mechanisms. Pharmacology & Therapeutics 121:1, pages 100-114.
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E. O'shea. (2008) Éxtasis líquido: estudios neurobiológicos en el laboratorio. Trastornos Adictivos 10:3, pages 195-200.
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Jeremy M. Wojtowicz, Mark C. Yarema & Paul M. Wax. (2015) Withdrawal from gamma-hydroxybutyrate, 1,4-butanediol and gamma-butyrolactone: a case report and systematic review. CJEM 10:01, pages 69-74.
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M. Isabel Colado, Esther O'Shea & A. Richard Green. 2007. Handbook of Contemporary Neuropharmacology. Handbook of Contemporary Neuropharmacology.
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Eric Perez, Jason Chu & Theodore Bania. (2006) Seven Days of Gamma-Hydroxybutyrate (GHB) Use Produces Severe Withdrawal. Annals of Emergency Medicine 48:2, pages 219-220.
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O. Carter SneadIIIIII & K. Michael Gibson. (2005) γ-Hydroxybutyric Acid. New England Journal of Medicine 352:26, pages 2721-2732.
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Alejandro GonzalezDavid J. Nutt. (2016) Gamma hydroxy butyrate abuse and dependency. Journal of Psychopharmacology 19:2, pages 195-204.
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Ruth Garvey & Brian Fitzmaurice. (2014) Withdrawal delirium with dance drug ‘liquid ecstasy’ (GHB). Irish Journal of Psychological Medicine 21:2, pages 73-75.
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Robert B Palmer. (2004) ??-Butyrolactone and 1,4-Butanediol. Toxicological Reviews 23:1, pages 21-31.
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Jane Carlisle Maxwell. (2003) The response to club drug use. Current Opinion in Psychiatry 16:3, pages 279-289.
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Jane Maxwell. (2003) Current Opinion in Psychiatry 16:3, pages 279-289.
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Thomas E. Freese, Karen Miotto & Cathy J. Reback. (2002) The effects and consequences of selected club drugs. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment 23:2, pages 151-156.
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Phillip E. Mason & William P. KernsIIII. (2008) Gamma Hydroxybutyric Acid (GHB) Intoxication. Academic Emergency Medicine 9:7, pages 730-739.
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