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Original Articles

The Anatomy and Biomechanics of Acute and Chronic Whiplash Injury

, , , &
Pages 101-112 | Received 12 Oct 2008, Accepted 02 Nov 2008, Published online: 07 Apr 2009

Keep up to date with the latest research on this topic with citation updates for this article.

Read on this site (11)

Daniel W. H. Mang, Gunter P. Siegmund & Jean-Sébastien Blouin. (2020) A comparison of anti-whiplash seats during low/moderate speed rear-end collisions. Traffic Injury Prevention 21:3, pages 195-200.
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I Putu A. Putra, Johan Iraeus, Robert Thomson, Mats Y. Svensson, Astrid Linder & Fusako Sato. (2019) Comparison of control strategies for the cervical muscles of an average female head-neck finite element model. Traffic Injury Prevention 20:sup2, pages S116-S122.
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Hans Westergren, Johan Larsson, Michael Freeman, Anna Carlsson, Anna Jöud & Eva-Maj Malmström. (2018) Sex-based differences in pain distribution in a cohort of patients with persistent post-traumatic neck pain. Disability and Rehabilitation 40:9, pages 1085-1091.
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Jobin D. John, Narayan Yoganandan, Mike W. J. Arun & G. Saravana Kumar. (2018) Influence of morphological variations on cervical spine segmental responses from inertial loading. Traffic Injury Prevention 19:sup1, pages S29-S36.
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Gabriella Bernhoff, Maria Landén Ludvigsson, Gunnel Peterson, Bo Christer Bertilson, Madeleine Elf & Anneli Peolsson. (2016) The pain drawing as an instrument for identifying cervical spine nerve involvement in chronic whiplash-associated disorders. Journal of Pain Research 9, pages 397-404.
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Hamed Shateri & Duane S. Cronin. (2015) Out-of-Position Rear Impact Tissue-Level Investigation Using Detailed Finite Element Neck Model. Traffic Injury Prevention 16:7, pages 698-708.
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N. Gales, S.N. Kunz, D. Rocksén, U.P. Arborelius, M.Y. Svensson, W. Hell & S. Schick. (2013) Muscle Pathologies After Cervical Spine Distortion-Like Exposure—A Porcine Model. Traffic Injury Prevention 14:8, pages 828-834.
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Michele Sterling. (2011) Whiplash-associated disorder: musculoskeletal pain and related clinical findings. Journal of Manual & Manipulative Therapy 19:4, pages 194-200.
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JarrodA. J. Shugg, Kyle Vernest & JamesP. Dickey. (2011) Head Restraint Backset During Routine Automobile Driving: Drivers Usually Exceed the Recommended Guidelines. Traffic Injury Prevention 12:2, pages 180-186.
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Ming Xiao & PaulC. Ivancic. (2010) WHIPS Seat and Occupant Motions During Simulated Rear Crashes. Traffic Injury Prevention 11:5, pages 514-521.
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Michael D. Freeman, Scott Rosa, David Harshfield, Francis Smith, Robert Bennett, Christopher J. Centeno, Ezriel Kornel, Ake Nystrom, Dan Heffez & Sean S. Kohles. (2010) A case-control study of cerebellar tonsillar ectopia (Chiari) and head/neck trauma (whiplash). Brain Injury 24:7-8, pages 988-994.
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Articles from other publishers (77)

E. Anarte-Lazo, C. Rodriguez-Blanco, C. Bernal-Utrera & D. Falla. (2023) Headache production during physical examination in patients with and without headache attributed to a whiplash injury: A case-control study. Musculoskeletal Science and Practice 66, pages 102779.
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I Putu A. Putra & Robert Thomson. (2022) Analysis of control strategies for VIVA OpenHBM with active reflexive neck muscles. Biomechanics and Modeling in Mechanobiology 21:6, pages 1731-1742.
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I Putu Alit Putra, Johan Iraeus, Fusako Sato, Mats Y. Svensson & Robert Thomson. (2022) Finite element human body models with active reflexive muscles suitable for sex based whiplash injury prediction. Frontiers in Bioengineering and Biotechnology 10.
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Ernesto Anarte-Lazo, Carlos Bernal-Utrera, Mario Lopez-Amor, Eugenia Porras-Valencia, Francisco Javier Ruy-Diaz-Rojas, Deborah Falla & Cleofas Rodriguez-Blanco. (2022) Exercise-induced hypoalgesia after aerobic versus neck-specific exercise in people with acute/subacute whiplash-associated disorders: protocol for a randomised controlled trial. BMJ Open 12:9, pages e061679.
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Donghwi Park. (2022) The Pathophysiology and Mechanism of Acute and Chronic Whiplash Injury: A Narrative Review. International journal of Pain 13:1, pages 20-24.
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Ziyang Liang, Fuhao MO, Zhefen Zheng, Yuandong Li, Ye Tian, Xiaobing Jiang & Tang Liu. (2022) Quantitative cervical spine injury responses in whiplash loading with a numerical method of natural neural reflex consideration. Computer Methods and Programs in Biomedicine 219, pages 106761.
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Ahmed Alalawi, Valter Devecchi, Alessio Gallina, Alejandro Luque-Suarez & Deborah Falla. (2022) Assessment of Neuromuscular and Psychological Function in People with Recurrent Neck Pain during a Period of Remission: Cross-Sectional and Longitudinal Analyses. Journal of Clinical Medicine 11:7, pages 2042.
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Jason P. Moses & Steve Karas. (2022) Evaluation and Treatment of Trigeminal Symptoms of Cervical Origin After a Motor-Vehicle Crash: A Case Report With 9-Month Follow-up. Journal of Chiropractic Medicine 21:1, pages 51-59.
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Mohammad Homayounpour, Nicholas G. Gomez, Anita N. Vasavada & Andrew S. Merryweather. (2021) Cervical Muscle Activation Due to an Applied Force in Response to Different Types of Acoustic Warnings. Annals of Biomedical Engineering 49:9, pages 2260-2272.
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T. Whyte, J. B. Barker, D. S. Cronin, G. A. Dumas, L.-P. Nolte & P. A. Cripton. (2021) Load-Sharing and Kinematics of the Human Cervical Spine Under Multi-Axial Transverse Shear Loading: Combined Experimental and Computational Investigation. Journal of Biomechanical Engineering 143:6.
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Jan Mario Breen, Pål Aksel Næss, Christine Gaarder & Arne Stray-Pedersen. (2021) Autopsy findings in drivers and passengers from fatal motor vehicle collisions: limited differences in injury patterns and toxicological test results. Forensic Science, Medicine and Pathology 17:2, pages 235-246.
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D. B. Stone, E. C. Ward, S. R. Knijnik, H. Bogaardt & J. M. Elliott. (2020) Whiplash-Associated Dysphagia and Dysphonia: A Scoping Review. Dysphagia 36:2, pages 303-315.
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I Putu A. Putra, Johan Iraeus, Fusako Sato, Mats Y. Svensson, Astrid Linder & Robert Thomson. (2020) Optimization of Female Head–Neck Model with Active Reflexive Cervical Muscles in Low Severity Rear Impact Collisions. Annals of Biomedical Engineering 49:1, pages 115-128.
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Gordon E. Lawson, Paul S. Nolet, Adam R. Little, Anit Bhattacharyya, Vivian Wang, C. Adam Lawson & Gordon D. Ko. (2020) Medial Branch Blocks for Diagnosis of Facet Joint Pain Etiology and Use in Chronic Pain Litigation. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 17:21, pages 7932.
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Andrew C. Smith, Stephanie R. Albin, Rebecca Abbott, Rebecca J. Crawford, Mark A. Hoggarth, Marie Wasielewski & James M. Elliott. (2020) Confirming the geography of fatty infiltration in the deep cervical extensor muscles in whiplash recovery. Scientific Reports 10:1.
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James M. Elliott, Andrew C. Smith, Mark A. Hoggarth, Stephanie R. Albin, Ken A. Weber, Mat Haager, Joel Fundaun, Marie Wasielewski, D. Mark Courtney & Todd B. Parrish. (2020) Muscle fat infiltration following whiplash: A computed tomography and magnetic resonance imaging comparison. PLOS ONE 15:6, pages e0234061.
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Ana Trajkovski, Marija Hribernik, Robert Kunc, Matej Kranjec & Simon Krašna. (2020) Analysis of the mechanical response of damaged human cervical spine ligaments. Clinical Biomechanics 75, pages 105012.
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Michael D. Freeman, Evan A. Katz, Scott L. Rosa, Bryan G. Gatterman, Ellen M. F. Strömmer & Wendy M. Leith. (2020) Diagnostic Accuracy of Videofluoroscopy for Symptomatic Cervical Spine Injury Following Whiplash Trauma. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 17:5, pages 1693.
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James M. Elliott, Brad E. Heinrichs, David M. Walton, Todd B. Parrish, D. Mark Courtney, Andrew C. Smith, Jasmine Hunt, Mary J. Kwasny, Marie Wasielewski & Gunter P. Siegmund. (2019) Motor vehicle crash reconstruction: Does it relate to the heterogeneity of whiplash recovery?. PLOS ONE 14:12, pages e0225686.
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Jobin D. John, Gurunathan Saravana Kumar & Narayan Yoganandan. (2019) Rear-Impact Neck Whiplash: Role of Head Inertial Properties and Spine Morphological Variations on Segmental Rotations. Journal of Biomechanical Engineering 141:11.
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Fan Li, Nian-song Liu, Hong-geng Li, Biao Zhang, Shi-wei Tian, Ming-gang Tan & Baptiste Sandoz. (2019) A review of neck injury and protection in vehicle accidents. Transportation Safety and Environment 1:2, pages 89-105.
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Firoozeh Samim & Joel B. Epstein. (2019) Orofacial Neuralgia Following Whiplash-Associated Trauma: Case Reports and Literature Review. SN Comprehensive Clinical Medicine 1:8, pages 627-632.
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JiHye Han, Hyung Joo Kim, Leeyong Song, Hansung Kim, Bongju Kim & Dohyung Lim. (2019) Characteristics of Human Responses in a Braked Stationary Lead Vehicle during Low-Speed, Rear-End Collisions. International Journal of Precision Engineering and Manufacturing 20:7, pages 1255-1264.
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Gabriella Bernhoff, Christos Saripanidis & Bo Christer Bertilson. (2019) “As If Neck Injuries Did Not Exist”: An Interview Study of Patients’ and Relatives’ Perceptions of Web Information on and Management of Whiplash Injuries in Sweden. Interactive Journal of Medical Research 8:2, pages e9881.
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Nicholas M. Beckmann, O. Clark West, Diego NunezJr.Jr., Claudia F.E. Kirsch, Joseph M. Aulino, Joshua S. Broder, R. Carter Cassidy, Gregory J. Czuczman, Jennifer L. Demertzis, Michele M. Johnson, Kambiz Motamedi, Charles Reitman, Lubdha M. Shah, Khoi Than, Elizabeth Ying-Kou Yung, Francesca D. Beaman, Mark J. Kransdorf & Julie Bykowski. (2019) ACR Appropriateness Criteria® Suspected Spine Trauma. Journal of the American College of Radiology 16:5, pages S264-S285.
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Ning Qu, Rene Lindstrøm, Thomas Graven-Nielsen & Rogerio Pessoto Hirata. (2019) Experimental cervical interspinous ligament pain altered cervical joint motion during dynamic extension movement. Clinical Biomechanics 65, pages 65-72.
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John M. Scanlon, Jessica Isaacs & Christina Garman. Head and Neck Loading Conditions over a Decade of IIHS Rear Impact Seat Testing. Head and Neck Loading Conditions over a Decade of IIHS Rear Impact Seat Testing.
Maria Landén Ludvigsson, Gunnel Peterson, Simon Widh & Anneli Peolsson. (2019) Exercise, headache, and factors associated with headache in chronic whiplash. Medicine 98:48, pages e18130.
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James M. Elliott, Mark J. Hancock, Rebecca J. Crawford, Andrew C. Smith & David M. Walton. (2018) Advancing imaging technologies for patients with spinal pain: with a focus on whiplash injury. The Spine Journal 18:8, pages 1489-1497.
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Hua-Dong Yao, Mats Y. Svensson & Håkan Nilsson. (2018) Deformation of dorsal root ganglion due to pressure transients of venous blood and cerebrospinal fluid in the cervical vertebral canal. Journal of Biomechanics 76, pages 16-26.
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Gunnel Peterson, David Nilsson, Johan Trygg & Anneli Peolsson. (2018) Neck-specific exercise improves impaired interactions between ventral neck muscles in chronic whiplash: A randomized controlled ultrasound study. Scientific Reports 8:1.
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Mohamed T. Z. Hassan & S. A. Meguid. (2017) Effect of seat belt and head restraint on occupant’s response during rear-end collision. International Journal of Mechanics and Materials in Design 14:2, pages 231-242.
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Miles O. Fortner, Paul A. Oakley & Deed E. Harrison. (2018) Cervical extension traction as part of a multimodal rehabilitation program relieves whiplash-associated disorders in a patient having failed previous chiropractic treatment: a CBP<sup>®</sup> case report. Journal of Physical Therapy Science 30:2, pages 266-270.
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Duane S. Cronin, Dilaver Singh, Donata Gierczycka, Jeffery Barker & David Shen. 2018. Basic Finite Element Method as Applied to Injury Biomechanics. Basic Finite Element Method as Applied to Injury Biomechanics 503 538 .
Enrico Marani & Ciska HeidaEnrico Marani & Ciska Heida. 2018. Head and Neck. Head and Neck 289 317 .
Garrett A. Mattos. 2018. Handbook of Human Motion. Handbook of Human Motion 2399 2416 .
Giulio Bianchi Piccinini, Johan Engström, Jonas Bärgman & Xuesong Wang. (2017) Factors contributing to commercial vehicle rear-end conflicts in China: A study using on-board event data recorders. Journal of Safety Research 62, pages 143-153.
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Meagan E. Ita, Sijia Zhang, Timothy P. Holsgrove, Sonia Kartha & Beth A. Winkelstein. (2017) The Physiological Basis of Cervical Facet-Mediated Persistent Pain: Basic Science and Clinical Challenges. Journal of Orthopaedic & Sports Physical Therapy 47:7, pages 450-461.
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Peter R. Blanpied, Anita R. Gross, James M. Elliott, Laurie Lee Devaney, Derek Clewley, David M. Walton, Cheryl Sparks & Eric K. Robertson. (2017) Neck Pain: Revision 2017. Journal of Orthopaedic & Sports Physical Therapy 47:7, pages A1-A83.
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James M. Elliott & David M. Walton. (2017) How Do We Meet the Challenge of Whiplash?. Journal of Orthopaedic & Sports Physical Therapy 47:7, pages 444-446.
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Megan M. Sperry, Meagan E. Ita, Sonia Kartha, Sijia Zhang, Ya-Hsin Yu & Beth Winkelstein. (2017) The Interface of Mechanics and Nociception in Joint Pathophysiology: Insights From the Facet and Temporomandibular Joints. Journal of Biomechanical Engineering 139:2.
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Timothy P. Holsgrove, Nicolas V. Jaumard, Nina Zhu, Nicholas S. Stiansen, William C. Welch & Beth A. Winkelstein. (2016) Upper Cervical Spine Loading Simulating a Dynamic Low-Speed Collision Significantly Increases the Risk of Pain Compared to Quasi-Static Loading With Equivalent Neck Kinematics. Journal of Biomechanical Engineering 138:12.
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Min-Yeong Song, Hee-Guen Jo, Jae-Uk Sul, Seong-Tae Kim, Kil-Joon Bae, Tae-Gwang Kim, Jae-Hong Kim & Jin-Bong Choi. (2016) Inpatient treatment effect and Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory characteristics of motor vehicle collision injuries in a traditional korean medicine hospital: Retrospective chart review. Chinese Journal of Integrative Medicine.
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Paul C. Ivancic. (2016) Mechanisms and Mitigation of Head and Spinal Injuries Due to Motor Vehicle Crashes. Journal of Orthopaedic & Sports Physical Therapy 46:10, pages 826-833.
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Scott F. Farrell, Peter G. Osmotherly, Jon Cornwall, Peter Lau & Darren A. Rivett. (2016) Morphology of Cervical Spine Meniscoids in Individuals With Chronic Whiplash-Associated Disorder: A Case-Control Study. Journal of Orthopaedic & Sports Physical Therapy 46:10, pages 902-910.
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Gunnel Peterson, David Nilsson, Simon Peterson, Åsa Dedering, Johan Trygg, Thorne Wallman & Anneli Peolsson. (2016) Changes in Dorsal Neck Muscle Function in Individuals with Chronic Whiplash-Associated Disorders: A Real-Time Ultrasound Case–Control Study. Ultrasound in Medicine & Biology 42:5, pages 1090-1102.
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Maria Landén Ludvigsson, Gunnel Peterson, Gwendolen Jull, Johan Trygg & Anneli Peolsson. (2016) Mechanical properties of the trapezius during scapular elevation in people with chronic whiplash associated disorders – A case-control ultrasound speckle tracking analysis. Manual Therapy 21, pages 177-182.
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Hua-Dong Yao, Mats Y. Svensson & Håkan Nilsson. (2016) Transient pressure changes in the vertebral canal during whiplash motion – A hydrodynamic modeling approach. Journal of Biomechanics 49:3, pages 416-422.
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Moon Soo ParkSeong-Hwan MoonTae-Hwan KimJae Keun OhMyung Ho Yang. (2016) Whiplash Injury. Journal of Korean Society of Spine Surgery 23:1, pages 63.
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Tanvir Mustafy, Kodjo Moglo, Samer Adeeb & Marwan El-Rich. (2016) Injury mechanisms of the ligamentous cervical C2–C3 Functional Spinal Unit to complex loading modes: Finite Element study. Journal of the Mechanical Behavior of Biomedical Materials 53, pages 384-396.
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Jason L. Forman, Francisco J. Lopez-Valdes, Sonia Duprey, Dipan Bose, Eduardo del Pozo de Dios, Damien Subit, Tim Gillispie, Jeff R. Crandall & Maria Segui-Gomez. (2015) The tolerance of the human body to automobile collision impact – a systematic review of injury biomechanics research, 1990–2009. Accident Analysis & Prevention 80, pages 7-17.
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Richard Seroussi, Virtaj Singh & Adrielle Fry. (2015) Chronic Whiplash Pain. Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation Clinics of North America 26:2, pages 359-373.
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Tanvir Mustafy, Marwan El-Rich, Wissal Mesfar & Kodjo Moglo. (2014) Investigation of impact loading rate effects on the ligamentous cervical spinal load-partitioning using finite element model of functional spinal unit C2–C3. Journal of Biomechanics 47:12, pages 2891-2903.
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Duane S. Cronin. (2014) Finite element modeling of potential cervical spine pain sources in neutral position low speed rear impact. Journal of the Mechanical Behavior of Biomedical Materials 33, pages 55-66.
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