![Sample our Area Studies journals, sign in here to start your access, latest two full volumes FREE to you for 14 days]({"type":"image" , "src" : "/sda/5922/TOC-Subject-Sample-2021-Area-Studies.jpg"})
ABSTRACT
This article harnesses the concept of the “usable past” to explore multiple strategies employed by squatters in post-colonial Kenya to access land since the 1960s. It argues that the conventional land reform program inherited at independence has largely failed to solve landlessness and the squatter problem. Consequently, inspired by past promises and pledges – exemplified by the optimism of the 1950s nationalist struggle, the pre-independence promises by nationalists to eliminate landlessness, and the independence government’s commitment to end poverty through agricultural enterprises – squatters have over the decades devised effective strategies to fend off competing interests in land. These interests – mainly government agencies, commercial companies, and private landowners – have been forced to accede to the squatters’ initiatives. While these initiatives have been relatively successful in addressing landlessness, they have by no means succeeded in eliminating the most vexing aspect of Kenya’s national land problem. Nevertheless, this success attests to their effectiveness outside government channels.
RÉSUMÉ
Cet article exploite le concept de « passé utilisable » pour explorer les multiples stratégies employées par les squatters du Kenya postcolonial pour accéder à la terre depuis les années 60. Il soutient que le programme conventionnel de réforme foncière hérité de l’indépendance a largement échoué à résoudre le problème des sans-terre et des squatters. Par conséquent, inspirés par les promesses et les engagements passés – illustrés par l’optimisme de la lutte nationaliste des années 50, les promesses faites par les nationalistes avant l’indépendance d’éliminer la privation de terres et l’engagement du gouvernement d’indépendance de mettre fin à la pauvreté par le biais d’entreprises agricoles – les squatters ont, au fil des décennies, conçu des stratégies efficaces pour repousser les intérêts en matière de terres. Ces intérêts – principalement des agences gouvernementales, des sociétés commerciales et des propriétaires fonciers privés – ont été contraints d’accéder aux initiatives des squatters. Si ces initiatives ont connu un succès relatif dans la lutte contre la privation des terres, elles n’ont en aucun cas réussi à éliminer l’aspect le plus contrariant du problème foncier national du Kenya. Néanmoins, ce succès atteste de leur efficacité en dehors des canaux gouvernementaux.
Acknowledgment
I thank the anonymous peer reviewers for their insightful critical feedback that I hope have enriched the article. I also wish to thank the editorial of the CJAS, especially Dr. Belinda Dodson for further helpful comments at various iterations of the article. However, I take full responsibility for the content and analysis in the article.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author.
Notes
1. In this article, the definition of “squatters” follows that adopted by the Kenya Squatter Commission in 1965: that a squatter is an individual residing on land to which they have no legal title or lives on such property without the express permission of the owner or their representative. Summary of the Report on the Squatter Problem in Kenya, 20 July 1965, KNA/CQ/9/29.
2. On squatter resistance against government-mandated commercialization of forestlands, see Moskowitz (Citation2015).
3. For details on this ideological debate see Oginga Odinga (Citation1967, 262–307), and Gertzel (Citation1975, 4).
4. Minutes of Twenty-Second Meeting of the Land Development and Settlement Board, Nairobi, 27 February 1963, Kenya National Archives (hereafter KNA)/DC/KMG/2/13/7. For details regarding these schemes see John W. Harbeson (Citation1973), and Christopher Leo (Citation1984).
5. Ministry of Land Settlement and Water Development, “Land Settlement – Squatters,” 2 October 1962, KNA/DC/KMG/2/13/7; J.W. Howard, Chairman, Land Development, and Settlement Board, “Progress on Settlement Schemes,” 4 June 1962, KNA/DC/KMG/2/13/7.
6. Special Commissioner, Squatters, to District Commissioner, Nyandarua District, 10 September 1965, KNA/CQ/9/29; Leo (Citation1978, 630–631).
7. East African Standard, 2 April 1964.
8. East African Standard, 2 April 1964.
9. East African Standard, 15 April 1964.
10. Summary of the Report on the Squatter Problem in Kenya, 20 July 1965, KNA/CQ/9/29.
11. Summary of the Report on the Squatter Problem in Kenya, 20 July 1965, KNA/CQ/9/29.
12. Letter from the District Commissioner (hereafter DC) Nyeri, “Appendix A,” Squatter Report, in the Special Commissioner’s Report on the Squatter Problem in Central Province, 20 July 1965, KNA/CQ/9/29.
13. Monthly Squatter Commission Settlement Report, April–May 1967, KNA: KNA/BN/87/17.
14. DC Nyandarua to DC Nyeri, “Squatters on Ex-Allen Farms,” 16 December 1970, KNA/VQ/1/20; DC Nyeri to DC Naromoru, 17 December 1970, KNA/VQ/1/20.
15. C.C. Patel and Company Advocates, letter to Provincial Commissioner (hereafter PC) Central Province, 14 July 1971, KNA/VQ/1/20.
16. Manager, Juja Farms Limited, to DC Nyeri, 29 June 1970, KNA/VQ/1/20.
17. DC Nyeri District to Manager, Juja Farms Limited, 10 May 1970, KNA/VQ/1/20; Charles Gaiko Mutahi to DC Nyeri District, 20 March 1971, KNA/VQ/1/20.
18. Rebecca Nyokabi and seven others, to the District Officer, Kieni West, 1 July 1972, KNA/VQ/1/20.
19. DC Kieni West, to the Manager, The Ark Limited, 4 July 1972, KNA/VQ/1/20; DO Kieni West, to Manager, The Manger, The Ark Limited, 10 July 1972, KNA/VQ/1/20.
20. Bishop of Nyeri to the Clerk, Nyeri County Council, 11 October 1973, KNA/VQ/1/20.
21. Michael M. Macharia to DC Nyeri District, 15 December 1970, KNA/VQ/1/20; DC Nyandarwa, to DC Nyeri District, 16 December 1970, KNA/VQ/1/20; DC Nyeri District, to District Officer Kieni West, 15 June 1971, KNA/VQ/1/20.
22. The Manager, Kieni East Farmers Company Limited, Bellevue Estate, 21 April 1971, KNA: VQ/1/20.
23. PC Eastern Province, to DC Machakos District, 30 April 1973, KNA/BB/11/34.
24. Muchiri Gateina and five others, to Provincial Commissioner, Eastern Province, 25 April 1973, KNA/BB/11/34.
25. PC Eastern Province, to DC Machakos District, 30 April 1973, KNA/BB/11/34.
26. DC Meru District to PC Eastern Province, 10 July 1980, KNA/BB/11/34.
27. Director of Settlement, to Provincial Commissioners of Rift Valley, Central, and Eastern Provinces, 20 January 1974. KNA/BB/11/34.
28. DC Machakos District, to the Director of Settlement, Ministry of Lands and Settlement, 4 August 1973, KNA/BB/11/34.
29. PC Eastern Province, to Director of Settlement, Ministry of Lands and Settlement, 6 May 1974, KNA/BB/11/34.
30. PC Rift Valley to PC Eastern Province, 17 August 1976; Director of Settlement to Permanent Secretary Office of the President, 20 September 1976; PC Eastern Province to PC Central Province, 7 April 1977; Acting DC Meru District, to PC Eastern Province, 6 January 1978, all found in KNA: KNA/BB/11/34.
31. Director of Settlement, to Area Settlement Controllers in North Eastern, Central, Eastern, and Coast Provinces, 7 April 1978, KNA/BB/11/34; DC Machakos District, “Meeting on Yatta Settlement Schemes,” to PC Eastern Province, 10 January 1974.
32. Minister for Lands and Settlement, to PC Eastern Province, 27 June 1978, KNA/BB/11/34.
33. District Officer, Changamwe, to DC Mombasa, 18 January 1988, KNA/ KNA/CQ/9/34.
34. Minutes of Squatters Meeting Held in the District Officer’s Office, Kisauni Division, Mombasa District, 8 August 1986, KNA/CQ/9/34.
35. District Officer Changamwe, to DC Mombasa District, 11 November 1987; Resident Director (Mombasa), Timau Agro-Industries Limited, to the Chairman, Mombasa District Development Committee, 29 September 1987, all available in KNA/CQ/9/34.
36. Squatters, Shauri Yako, to DC Mombasa District, 8 August 1988.
37. Commissioner for Lands, to DC Mombasa District, 29 June 1988, KNA/CQ/9/34.
38. Gibson L. Mwikandi, to His Excellency, the President of the Republic of Kenya, 1 August 1988, KNA/CQ/9/34.
39. Fatuma Kazungu Wale, to Provincial Land Officer, Mombasa, 2 November 1987, KNA/CQ/9/34.
40. District Officer Changamwe, to Atkinson Cleansby and Satchu, 13 January 1988; Juma Abiyoya Baya and others, to the Commissioner of Lands, Nairobi, 27 April 1988; Umazi Madeni and Chizi Madzacha, to DC Mombasa District, 15 July 1988; J. Awimbo, Mutiso Menezes International, to D.O. Changamwe, Mombasa District, June 1988, all in KNA/CQ/9/34.
41. Johny Antoni to Town Clerk, Mombasa Municipal Council, 24 March 1988, KNA/CQ/9/34.
42. District Officer Likoni to Chief, Likoni, 28 March 1988, KNA/CQ/9/34.
43. PC Coast Province, to Hon. Joseph K. Kiliku, MP, Changamwe, 22 August 1988, KNA/CQ/9/34.
44. Hon. Joseph Kennedy Kiliku, MP Changamwe, to PC Coast Province, 15 August 1988, KNA/CQ/9/34.
45. I.S.A. Mwaruwa, KANU Chairman, Mwandoni Sub-Branch, no date, probably late 1988, KNA/CQ/9/34.
46. Chairman KANU, Kongowea Ward, Kisauni Constituency, Mombasa District, to William O. Alela, Kisauni Division, 22 August 1988, KNA/CQ/9/34.
47. Daily Nation, 10 October 2013.
48. The Star, 19 February 2014; The Star, 19 June 2017.
49. Daily Nation, 24 March 2006; Daily Nation, 24 November 2009; The Guardian, 18 November 2009.
50. Daily Nation, 24 March 2006.
Additional information
Notes on contributors
Martin S. Shanguhyia
Martin S. Shanguhyia, is an associate professor of African history in the Department of History at Syracuse University, New York. His research and publications focus on the intersection between environment, society, and state politics in colonial and post-colonial Africa. His published works have highlighted this intersection regarding land, community livelihoods, agricultural initiatives, and environmental conservation in colonial and post-colonial Kenya in particular, and Africa in general.