From national capital to provincial capital: Transformation of Hangzhou’s political spaces in the Early Yuan Dynasty

Abstract

After achieving the unification of all under Heaven, the early Yuan rulers began to reform the political space of the Southern Song capital. The evolution of their policies was closely related to the ruling situation in Jiangnan. After the Yuan army captured Lin’an, ritualistic buildings with strong overtones of imperial power within and outside the city were gradually abandoned or transformed; out of consideration for the political impact, certain protective measures were taken. Due to Kublai Khan’s apprehensions that the situation in Jiangnan would worsen, as well as Sangha’s administration, the transformation tended to be radical: The imperial palace, imperial Daoist temples, Circular Mound Altar of the southern suburbs, the mausoleums of the emperors and empresses, and so on were forcibly transformed into Buddhist temples, sparking violent unrest in Jiangnan society. The Yuan court later adjusted the relevant measures, assigning to Hangzhou the status of a provincial capital, respecting local cultural traditions, and building government offices, ancestral shrines, gate towers, and so on in accord with the Confucian code of etiquette. At the turn of the Yuan and Ming dynasties, the historical facts associated with the transformation of Hangzhou in the early Yuan Dynasty had gradually become obscured, and many mystical legends were later derived therefrom, becoming an important historical reference for governance of Jiangnan by the rulers of later generations.

Keywords:

• Hangzhou
• historical memory
• political spaces
• Yuan Dynasty

Acknowledgments

This paper is a partial finding under the general project “Study of Ethnic Politics and Rule over Jiangnan in the Early Yuan Dynasty” (19BZS047) of the National Social Science Fund, and was previously presented at the Fifth Young Historians Forum sponsored by the Editorial Board of Historical Research (Lishi yanjiu) in May 2018. Thanks to the anonymous external reviewers for the valuable comments they offered.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author.

Notes

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2 Seo Tatsuhiko, Sui Tang Chang’an yu Dongya bijiao ducheng shi (Chang’an during the Sui and Tang dynasties and a comparative history of capital cities in East Asia), translated by Gao Bingbing et al., Xi’an: Xibei daxue chuban she, 2019, pp. 72-95.

3 Takahashi Hiroomi, “Nansō no kōtei sai to Rin’an” (Imperial sacrifices and Lin’an during the Southern Song Dynasty), Tōyōshi kenkyū (The journal of oriental researches), vol. 69, no. 4, 2011. Zhu Yi, “Lin’an yu Nansong de guojia jisi liyi—zhuozhong yu kongjian yinsu de tantao” (Lin’an and state sacrificial rites during the Southern Song Dynasty—focusing on an exploration of spatial factors), Zhongyang yanjiu yuan Lishi yuyan yanjiu suo jikan (Bulletin of the Institute of History and Philology), vol. 88, no. 1, 2017.

4 Yuanshi (History of Yuan), vol. 8, Shizu ji wu (Annals of Shizu V), Beijing: Zhonghua shuju, 1976, p. 156; vol. 9, Shizu ji liu (Annals of Shizu VI), p. 179.

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58 Yuanshi, vol. 205, “Sangge zhuan” (Biography of Sangha), p. 4570.

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69 Yuanshi, vol. 13, Shizu ji shi (Annals of Shizu X), pp. 269, 271-272.

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75 Shen Weirong, “Shentong, yaoshu he zeikun—lun Yuandai wenren bixia de fanseng xingxiang” (Magical power, sorcery and the shaving of thieves’ heads—on the images of foreign monks in the writings of the literati of the Yuan Dynasty), Hanxue yanjiu (Chinese studies), 2003, vol. 21, no. 2, p. 219.

76 Shi Nianchang, Fozu lidai tongzai, vol. 21, “Dan Ba zhuan” (Biography of Dan Ba), Zhonghua zaizao shanben, no. 665, bk. 20, p. 30a.

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78 Lin Jingxi, Jishan ji (Collected works of Ji Mountain), vol. 2, “Gugong” (The former palace), Beijing: Zhonghua shuju, 1960, p. 51.

79 Chen Yi, Wuxi ji (Collected works of Wu Stream), vol. 7, “Fenghuang shan huaigu” (Meditating on the past at Fenghuang Mountain), photographic reproduction of Siku quanshu of Wenyuan Pavilion, bk. 1215, p. 397.

80 Huang Jin, Jinhua Huang xiansheng wenji, vol. 2, “Fenghuang shan” (Fenghuang Mountain), Zhonghua zaizao shanben, no. 723, bk. 1, p. 8b.

81 Yuan Jue, Qingrong jushi ji, vol. 46, “Zhao Qingxian gong tie” (Model calligraphy of Lord Zhao Qingxian), Zhonghua zaizao shanben, no. 712, Beijing: Beijing tushu guan chuban she, 2006, bk. 30, p. 21b.

82 Yuanshi, vol. 205, “Sangge zhuan,” pp. 4575-4576.

83 Mao Hai-ming, “Sangge fuzheng bei shijian tanwei—yi Hanlin guanliao Zhang Zhihan de shihuan zhuanzhe wei xiansuo” (Exploring the details of the events in the Stele on Sangha’s Assistance in Governance—Following the clues of the twists and turns in the official service of the Imperial Academician and bureaucrat Zhang Zhihan), Zhongyang yanjiu yuan Lishi yuyan yanjiu suo jikan, vol. 87, no. 3, 2016.

84 Wu Cheng, Wu Wenzheng gong ji (Collected works of Lord Wu Wenzheng), vol. 32, “Yuan ronglu daifu pingzhang zhengshi Zhaoguo Dong Zhongxuan gong shendao bei” (Stele of the sacred way of Lord Dong Zhongxuan of the State of Zhao, Grand Master for Glorious Happiness and Manager of Government Affairs of the Yuan Dynasty), Yuan renwen ji zhenben congkan, bk. 3, pp. 542-543.

85 Miaoxue dianli, vol. 3, “Guo Qiansheng zi fu Yang zongshe Yuan zhan xueyuan chanye,” pp. 63-64.

86 Deng Ruiling, Yuandai Hangzhou Xing xuanzheng yuan (The Hangzhou Branch Commission for Buddhist and Tibetan Affairs in the Yuan Dynasty), Zhongguo shi yanjiu (Journal of Chinese Historical Studies), 1995, no. 2.

87 Yuanshi, vol. 17, Shizu ji shisi (Annals of Shizu XIV), p. 362.

88 Chen Gaohua, “Lüelun Yang Lianzhen Jia he Yang Anpu fuzi,” Xibei minzu yanjiu, 1986, no. 1.

89 Ren Shilin, Songxiang ji, “Sisheng Yanxiang guan beiming,” photographic reproduction of Siku quanshu of Wenyuan Pavilion, bk. 1196, p. 526.

90 Dai Biaoyuan, Shanyuan Dai xiansheng wenji, vol. 16, “Gudao Luzhang gong muzhi ming,” Sibu congkan chubian, bk. 228, p. 7a.

91 Yang Weizhen, Dong Weizi wenji, vol. 23, “Hangzhou Longxiang gong chongjian bei,” Sibu congkan chubian, bk. 245, p. 13a.

92 Ruan Yuan, ed., Liang Zhe jinshi zhi, vol. 17, “Yuan Wushan Chengtian Lingying guan bei” (Stele at Chengtian Lingying Temple of Wu Mountain of the Yuan Dynasty), p. 419.

93 Liu Ruzhen, “Yuandai Jiang Zhe xingsheng yanjiu” (A study of the Jiangsu-Zhejiang Provincial Administration during the Yuan Dynasty), in Cai Meibiao, ed., Yuanshi luncong (Collected papers on Yuan history), vol. 6, Beijing: Zhongguo shehui kexue chuban she, 1997, pp. 95-99.

94 Chen Rang and Xia Shizheng, eds., Hangzhou fu zhi of the Chenghua Reign, vol. 16, Siku quanshu cunmu congshu, History Section, bk. 175, p. 233.

95 Liu Guan, Liu daizhi wenji (Collected works of Advisor Liu), vol. 14, “Chongxiu shengfu ji” (Record of the reconstruction of the seat of the provincial government), Zhonghua zaizao shanben, no. 724, Beijing: Beijing tushu guan chuban she, 2005, bk. 10, p. 1a.

96 Yan Fu, “Jiang Zhe xing zhongshu sheng xin shu ji” (Record of the new office of the Jiangsu-Zhejiang Branch Department of State Affairs), in Zhou Nanrui, ed., Tianxia tongwen qian jia ji (Selected works of great harmony, collection A), vol. 7, Congshu jicheng xubian (Complete collectanea in continuation), bk. 105, Taipei: Xin wenfeng chuban gongsi, 1989, p. 24.

97 Huang Jie, Bianshan xiaoyin yin lu (Record of chants in a small retreat on Bian Mountain), vol. 2, “Guan Zhe sheng xin zhi” (Visiting the new site in Zhejiang Province), photographic reproduction of Siku quanshu of Wenyuan Pavilion, bk. 1215, p. 36.

98 Chen Rang and Xia Shizheng, eds., Hangzhou fu zhi of the Chenghua Reign, vol. 16, “Gulou ji” (Record of the drum tower), Siku quanshu cunmu congshu, History Section, bk. 175, p. 234.

99 Liu Guan, Liu daizhi wenji, vol. 13, “Gongbei lou ming you xu” (Preface to the inscription on Gongbei Tower), Zhonghua zaizao shanben, no. 724, bk. 9, p. 3a.

100 Dai Biaoyuan, Shanyuan yi gao (Leisurely manuscripts from Shanyuan), vol. 4, “Ti Gongbei lou” (Inscription on Gongbei Tower), Xuxiu siku quanshu, bk. 1322, p. 527.

101 Yang Weizhen, Dong Weizi wenji, vol. 12, “Hangzhou lu chongjian Beimen Ying’en guan ji” (Record of the reconstruction of Ying’en Hall at North Gate in the Hangzhou Circuit), Sibu congkan chubian, bk. 245, p. 4a.

102 Ruan Yuan, Liang Zhe jinshi zhi, vol. 16, “Yuan Xihu shuyuan chongxiu Dacheng dian bei” (Stele on the reconstruction of Dacheng Hall at West Lake Academy during the Yuan Dynasty), p. 405.

103 Fang Hui, Tongjiang xuji (Continued collected works of Tong River), vol. 23, “Sanxian tang yiru Xihu xin shuyuan” (The Hall of the Three Worthies is moved to the new academy at West Lake), photographic reproduction of Siku quanshu of Wenyuan Pavilion, bk. 1193, p. 514.

104 Chen Ji, Yibai zhai gao (Manuscripts from Yibai Studio), vol. 21, “Xihu shuyuan shumu xu” (Preface to the catalog of titles at West Lake Academy), Sibu congkan sanbian, Shanghai: Shanghai shudian, 1986, bk. 70, p. 14b.

105 Mou Yan, Mou shi lingyang ji (Collected works of Mr. Mou of Lingyang), vol. 15, “Ti Xu Rong zhai jian gao” (Inscription on the recommendations by Xu Rong Studio), photographic reproduction of Siku quanshu of Wenyuan Pavilion, bk. 1188, p. 132.

106 Liu Ji ji (Collected works of Liu Ji), vol. 6, “Hangzhou lu chongxiu fuzhi ji” (Record of the reconstruction of the prefectural seat for Hangzhou Circuit), punctuated and collated by Lin Jiali, Hangzhou: Zhejiang guji chuban she, 1999, p. 131.

107 Ren Shilin, Songxiang ji, vol. 1, “Hangzhou lu chongjian zongguanfu ji” (Record of the reconstruction of the Supervisorate-in-Chief in Hangzhou Circuit), photographic reproduction of Siku quanshu of Wenyuan Pavilion, bk. 1196, p. 493.

108 Ruan Yuan, ed., Liang Zhe jinshi zhi, vol. 18, “Yuan Hangzhou lu chongjian miaoxue bei” (Stele on the reconstruction of the temple school in the Hangzhou Circuit during the Yuan Dynasty), p. 464.

109 Liu Minzhong, Ping Song lu, vol. 2, “Chengxiang Bayan gong xunde bei” Stele on the merit and virtue of the Prime Minister Lord Bayan), pp. 24-26.

110 Deng Wenyuan, Baxi Deng xiansheng wenji (Collected works of Mr. Deng of Baxi), vol. 2, “Huai’an zhongwu wang miaotian ji” (Record of the temple and fields of King Zhongwu in Huai’an), Beijing tushu guan guji zhenben congkan, bk. 92, p. 779.

111 Liu Minzhong, Zhong’an xiansheng Liu Wenjian gong wenji (Collected works of Lord Liu Wenjian, gentleman of Zhong’an), vol. 1, “Chi ci Huai’an Zhongwu wang miao bei” (Stele of the Temple of King Zhongwu in Huai’an, granted by imperial edict), Beijing tushu guan guji zhenben congkan, bk. 92, p. 267.

112 Meng Qi, “He ping Song biao” (Congratulatory missive on the pacification of the Song Dynasty), in Su Tianjue, ed., Guochao wenlei (Literary categories of the reigning dynasty), vol. 16, Zhonghua zaizao shanben, no. 744, Beijing: Beijing tushu guan chuban she, 2006, bk. 8, p. 4a.

113 Yuan Mingshan, Qinghe ji (Collected works of Qinghe), vol. 4, “Yousheng guan chongjian Xuanwu dian ji” (Record of the reconstruction of Xuanwu Hall at Yousheng Daoist Temple), Yuan renwen ji zhenben congkan, bk. 5, p. 180. [Translator’s note: Wuhui refers to a historic region of the Qin and Han dynasties.].

114 Liu Ji ji, vol. 21, “Bei Hang cheng” (The melancholy city of Hangzhou), p. 395.

115 Gao Qi, Gao taishi Fuzao ji (Collected works of Grand Historian Gao Fuzao), vol. 3, “Song Huang shengyua zhi Qiantang xu” (Preface on bidding farewell to Secretariat Clerk Huang in Qiantang), Sibu congkan chubian, bk. 252, p. 16b.

116 Luigi Bressan, Xifang ren yanli de Hangzhou (Hangzhou città delle meraviglie: vista e narrata dai primi visitatori occidentali in Cina), translated by Yao Jiangen, Shanghai: Xuelin chuban she, 2010, pp. 12, 58.

117 Yuanshi, vol. 13, Shizu ji shi, p. 272.

118 Zhou Mi, Guixin zashi, Continued Collection 1, “Yang kun fa ling,” p. 152.

119 Yuanshi, vol. 120, “Yilisahe zhuan” (Biography of Yilisahe), p. 2958.

120 Miaoxue dianli, vol. 3, “Guo Qiansheng zi fu Yang zongshe Yuan zhan xueyuan chanye,” p. 63.

121 Yuan Jue, Qingrong jushi ji, vol. 32, “Hanlin xueshi Jiayi dafu zhi zhigao tongxiu guoshi Zhao gong xingzhuang” (Obituary of Lord Zhao, Hanlin Academician, Grand Master for Excellent Counsel, Participant in the Drafting of Proclamations, and State Historiographer), Zhonghua zaizao shanben, no. 712, bk. 23, p. 1b.

122 Yan Fu, “Hanlin xueshi Zhao gong muzhi ming” (Memorial tablet inscription of Lord Zhao, Hanlin Academician), in Su Tianjue, ed., Guochao wenlei, vol. 51, Zhonghua zaizao shanben, no. 744, bk. 26, p. 21b.

123 Zhou Mi, Guixin zashi, Separate Collection, vol. 1, “Yang kun fa ling,” p. 264.

124 Zhao Fang, Dongshan cungao (Extant manuscripts of East Mountain), vol. 5, “Ba Xie Ao dongqingshu yin hou” (Postscript to the introduction to Xie Ao’s evergreen tree), photographic reproduction of Siku quanshu of Wenyuan Pavilion, bk. 1221, pp. 302-303.

125 Zhang Zhu, Zhang Tui’an shi ji (Collected poetry of Zhang Tui’an), vol. 4, “Leihuo fen gugong baita” (Fire caused by lightning burns the stupa at the former palace), Sibu congkan xubian, bk. 72, p. 20.

126 Wang Feng, Wuxi ji (Collected works from Wu Stream), vol. 4b, “Baita xing youhou yin” (Introduction to the actions at the stupa for posterity), Beijing tushu guan guji zhenben congkan, bk. 95, p. 521.

127 Changgu Zhenyi, ed., Nongtian yuhua (Superfluous talk from the fields), vol. 1, Siku quanshu cunmu congshu, Philosophical Works, bk. 239, p. 316.

128 Tao Zongyi, Nancun chuogeng lu, vol. 4, “Fa Song lingqin” (Excavation of the Song mausoleums), p. 40.

129 Wang Feng, Wuxi ji, vol. 2, “Ti Tiantai Tao Zongyi mu Zhao xianzhu Dezhen muzhi ming hou” (Inscription on the reverse side of the memorial tablet of County Princess Zhao Dezhen, mother of Tao Zongyi of Tiantai), Beijing tushu guan guji zhenben congkan, bk. 95, p. 442. [Translator’s note: Zhao Kuangyin (Emperor Taizu 太祖) was the founder of the Song Dynasty.].

130 Zhao Ping, “Tao Zongyi jiashi kaolüe” (Brief examination of the family background of Tao Zongyi), Taizhou xueyuan xuebao (Journal of Taizhou University), 2006, no. 4.

131 Huang Jin, Jinhua Huang xiansheng wenji, “Fenghuang shan Chanzong Da Baoguo Si ji,” Zhonghua zaizao shanben, no. 723, bk. 6, p. 3b.

132 Tao Zongyi, Nancun chuogeng lu, vol. 4, “Fa Song lingqin,” pp. 40-44.

133 Xu Yikui, Shifeng gao xiaozhu, with collation and annotation by Xu Yong’en, vol. 10, “Song xinggong kao,” p. 251.

134 Zhang Yu, Zhang Guangbi shi ji (Collected poetry of Zhang Guangbi), vol. 4, “Guan chai baita you fu” (Composed while watching the destruction of the stupa), Sibu congkan xubian, bk. 72, p. 6a.

135 Qian Weishan, Jiangyue songfeng ji (Collected works of the moon on the river and the wind in the pines), vol. 7, “Jiuri yu Wu Zhongren deng Zunsheng tasi” (Climbing to Zunzheng Temple with Wu Zhongren on the ninth day), punctuated and collated by Wu Jing and Zhou Ying, Beijing: Dangdai Zhongguo chuban she, 2014, p. 88.

136 See Ma Shiyong, ed., Hangzhou de kaogu (Archaeological studies in Hangzhou), Hangzhou: Hangzhou chuban she, 2004, p. 269; Tang Junjie and Du Zhengxian, Nansong Lin’an cheng kaogu (Archaeological studies of the city of Lin’an of the Southern Song Dynasty), Hangzhou: Hangzhou chuban she, 2008, p. 21.

137 Song Jian quanji, vol. 80, “Shu mu ling yige” (Letter on the remains of the solemn tombs), edited, punctuated and collated by Huang Linggeng, Beijing: Renmin wenxue chuban she, 2014, p. 1918.

138 Zhang Jia, “Mingchu de Hanzu Yuan yimin” (The Yuan loyalists of Han ethnicity in the early Ming Dynasty), Gudai wenming (The Journal of Ancient Civilizations), 2014, no. 1.

139 Huawai ji jianzhu (Commentary on the supplemental flower collection), with commentary by Zhan Antai, Appendix, “Yang kun faling kaobian” (Examination and disputation on the Breaching of the Tombs by Yang of the Shaven Head), Guangzhou: Guangdong renmin chuban she, 1995, pp. 173-197.

140 Otosaka Tomoko, “Zangchuan fojiao he Yuanchao Han minzu shehui” (Tibetan Buddhism and ethnic Han society during the Yuan Dynasty), China Research Association on Yuan History, ed., Yuanshi luncong (Collected papers on Yuan history), vol. 10, Beijing: Zhongguo guangbo dianshi chuban she, 2005, pp. 373-382.

141 Xiang Shan, “Yuandai Zangchuan fojiao nan chuan yu Jiangnan shiren de yingdui” (The southern spread of Tibetan Buddhism during the Yuan Dynasty and the response by the scholars of Jiangnan), in Li Zhi’an and Song Tao, eds., Make Boluo youli guo de chengshi: Yuandai Hangzhou yanjiu wenji, pp. 453-459.

142 Arnold J. Toynbee, A Study of History, vol. 8, New York: Oxford University Press, 1963, p. 530.

143 Shizu shilu (Veritable records of Shizhu), vol. 100, gengwu day of the fourth month of the thirteenth year of the Shunzhi Reign, Qing shilu (Veritable records of the Qing Dynasty), bk. 3, Beijing: Zhonghua shuju, 1985, p. 776.

144 Zhu Hong, “Qingdai renshi de Ming shisan ling yu Jingdi ling qinghuai” (Feelings toward the thirteen tombs of the Ming Dynasty and the tomb of Emperor Jing among the people of the Qing Dynasty), Quanqiuhua xia Ming shi yanjiu zhi xin shiye lunwen ji (Collected papers with new perspectives on the study of Ming history under globalization) (II), Taipei: Dongwu daxue lishi xuexi, 2008, pp. 117-139.

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Notes on contributors

Chen Caiyun

Chen Caiyun is a professor in the Department of History and the Center for Research on Jiangnan Culture at Zhejiang Normal University, Jinhua.