Turco-British relations, Cold War and reshaping the Middle East: Egypt, Greece and Cyprus (1954–1958)

Abstract

This article tries to shed light on Turco-British relations in the early Cold War era. It focuses on the two states’ cooperation in Middle Eastern defence, as well as their interactions with Egypt and Greece. Immediately after the Second World War, the Soviet Union and communism were accepted as common threats directed against Turkey, Greece, Britain, the entire Western camp and a broad range of Middle Eastern countries. Washington and London were in search of alliances with regional actors; however, due to the anti-Western attitudes of Egypt in particular, and the anti-Israeli attitudes of the Arabic realm in general, the West was not satisfied with the defence system established in the region. In regard to the relations between the four abovementioned states, while Turkey and Britain joined forces against the Egyptian cause in the Suez issue and the Greek cause on the Cyprus issue, Greece and Egypt sided with each other against the British positions.

Keywords:

• Nasser
• Suez issue
• Enosis
• partition

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.

Notes

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22 W. Mallinson, A Modern History of Cyprus (New York: I.B. Tauris, 2005), pp.ix, 117.

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24 A. Sözen, ‘Cyprus’ in Godfrey Baldaccino (ed.), The Political Economy of Divided Islands: Unified Geographies, Multiple Polities, (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013), p.107.

25 Memorandum by the Cabinet Secretary (hereafter CS), 2 July 1945, p.2, CP 55 (45), The National Archive [TNA] – CAB 66/67.

26 Ibid, pp.3–7.

27 In that period of time, the Arab League was composed of Iraq, Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, Saudi Arabia, Yemen and Egypt.

28 Memo by the CS, 2 July 1945, p.11, CP 55 (45), TNA – CAB 66/67.

29 Memo by the CS, 2 July 1945, p.1, CP 56 (45), TNA – CAB 66/67.

30 DEFE 4/16 JP(48)106, 7 October 1948; DEFE 5/8 COS(48)123, Plan ‘Sandown’, 16 October 1948, TNA. ‘The first American plan for the Middle East, called ‘Halfmoon’, was approved by the National Security Council in May 1948, and was substantially in line with Britain’s Plan ‘Sandown’, D. R. Devereux, The Formulation of British Defense Policy Towards the Middle East, 1948–1956, (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 1990), pp.22–23.

31 M. J. Cohen, Britain’s Hegemony in Palestine and the Middle East, 1917-56: Changing Strategic Imperatives (London: Vallentine Mitchell, 2017), p.190 (Note 51).

32 J. Quigley, The International Diplomacy of Israel’s Founders: Deception at the United Nations in the Quest for Palestine (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2016), p.94.

33 B. Demirtaş, ‘Turkish-Syrian Relations: From Friend “Esad” to Enemy “Esed”’, Middle East Policy Vol. 20, No. 1 (Spring 2013), pp.111–120, (at p.112). DOI: 10.1111/mepo.12008.

34 E. J. Zürcher, Turkey: A Modern History 4th ed. (New York: I.B. Tauris, 2017), p.223.

35 ‘Türkiyenin İsrail devletini fi’len tanıması’ [Turkey grants de facto recognition to Israel], Akşam, 30 March 1949, p.1.

36 ‘The North Atlantic Pact’, Memo by the Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs (SSFA), 8 March 1949, CP (49) 56, p.1, TNA – CAB 129/33; ‘Middle East Policy’, Note by SSFA, 25 August 1949, CP (49) 183, p.1, TNA – CAB 129/36; ‘Egypt: Defence’, Memo by SSFA, 27 November 1950, CP (50) 284, p.2, TNA – CAB 129/36.

37 G. McGhee, The US-Turkish-NATO Middle East connection: How the Truman Doctrine contained the Soviets in the Middle East (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 1990), pp.70–71, 78.

38 ‘Ottawa Konseyinde, K. Atlantik Paktına iştirâkimiz temin edildi’ [In the Ottawa Council, our participation in the N. Atlantic Pact has been approved], Milliyet, 20 September 1951, p.1.

39 ‘Lizbon’a gidecek heyet dün Ankara’dan geldi’ [The mission that will fly to Lisbon came from Ankara yesterday], Akşam, 19 February 1952, p.1.

40 I. D. Stefanidis, ‘The Cyprus Question, 1949-1952: British Attitude, American Reactions and Greek Dilemmas’, Byzantine and Modern Greek Studies Vol. 15, No. 1 (1991), pp.212–268, (at pp.253–254).

41 Cabinet Conclusions, 31 May 1951, CM (51) 39, minute 4, TNA – CAB 128/19.

42 DEFE 5/24 COS(50)363 15 September 1950, TNA; ‘Memo 282 of 1951. Short Term Plan for the defence of the Middle East review of Current Factors Affecting Plan “Celery”’, DEFE 5/31/282, 7 May 1951; ‘Memo 439 of 1951. Revision of Plan Celery’ DEFE 5/32/439, 27 July 1951, TNA.

43 M. Fırat and Ö. Kürkçüoğlu, ‘1945-1960 Arap Ülkeleriyle İlişkiler’ [1945-1960 Relations with Arab Countries] in Baskın Oran (ed.), Türk Dış Politikası: Kurtuluş Savaşından Bugüne Olgular, Belgeler, Yorumlar Vol. I, [Turkish Foreign Policy: From the war of independence to the present: Cases, documents, comments Vol. I] (Istanbul: İletişim Yayınları, 2001), pp.617–620.

44 ‘Mısıra dört devletin teklifi dün yapıldı’ [The offer of the four states was made to Egypt yesterday], Milliyet, 14 October 1951, p.7.

45 ‘Mısır dün dörtlerin teklifini reddetti’ [Egypt rejected the offer of the four states yesterday], Milliyet, 16 October 1951, p.1.

46 ‘King Farouk abdicated his throne and sailed away last night’. Ahram online, 27 July 1952, p.1. http://english.ahram.org.eg/NewsContent/32/138/274068/Folk/Photo-Heritage/The--revolution-From-the-headlines-of-the-time.aspx (accessed 29 October 2018).

47 DEFE 5/34/600, ‘Construction in Cyprus of Headquarters accommodation for the Commander in Chief, Middle East Land Forces, or for an Allied Commander’, 18 October 1951; DEFE 4/53/62, ‘Proposal to establish a Joint Headquarters in Cyprus for GHQ Middle East Land Forces, and HQ Middle East Air Force’, 6 May 1952; DEFE 4/54/76, ‘Establishment of a Joint Headquarters in Cyprus’, 4 June 1952; DEFE 4/55/103, ‘Establishment for Joint Headquarters in Cyprus’, 17 July 1952.

48 FRUS, ‘The Visit of Secretary of State John Foster Dulles and Mutual Security Administrator Harold Stassen to The Near and Middle East, May 9–29, 1953’, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1952-54v09p1/ch1 (accessed 14 October 2018).

49 ‘Başvekil dün Dulles ile üç saat görüştü’ [The Prime Minister met yesterday with Dulles for three hours], Milliyet, 27 May 1953, p.1.

50 B. Yeşilbursa, The American Concept of the ‘Northern Tier’ Defence Project and the Signing of the Turco-Pakistani Agreement, 1953-54, Middle Eastern Studies Vol. 37, No. 3 (2001), pp.59–110, (at pp.65, 67–68). DOI:10.1080/714004409.

51 P. Dimitrakis, Failed Alliances of The Cold War: Britain’s Strategy and Ambitions in Asian and the Middle East (New York: I. B. Tauris, 2011), p.30.

52 B. K. Yeşilbursa, The Baghdad pact: Anglo-American defence policies in the Middle East, 1950–1959 (New York: Frank Cass, 2005), pp.24–27, 80–90.

53 ‘United States military aid to Pakistan and talks between Pakistan and Turkey’, Memo by the SSFA, 16 February 1954, C (54) 58, TNA – CAB 129/66.

54 ‘Alternative Location Outside Egypt for UK Middle East Base; Redeployment of Middle East forces; Proposal for Pre-Stocking British Military Stores and Equipment at Mardin, Turkey’, 1953-1955, TNA, PREM 11/942.

55 ‘United States Project to Associate Military Aid to Pakistan with Middle East Defence’, Memo by the SSFA, 23 January 1954, C (54) 4, TNA – CAB 129/65.

56 FO 371/115486/1073/95, ‘Proposed pact between Turkey, Pakistan, Iraq and Persia’, 1955, TNA.

57 ‘Middle East policy’, Memo by the SSFA, 23 January 1954, C (54) 6, TNA – CAB 129/65.

58 ‘Mısır hükümetinin dostluğa sığmayan bir hareketi: Kahire elçimiz Mısırı terke davet edildi’ [The Egyptian government’s unfriendly movement: Our Ambassador to Cairo was asked to leave Egypt], Milliyet, 5 January 1954, p.1.

59 ‘Yunanlılar Gl. Necibi övüyor’ [Greeks praise General Naguib], Milliyet, 9 January 1954, p.1; ‘Paşa Necibin başından büyük teşebbüsleri’ [Pasha Naguib bites off more than he can chew], Milliyet, 10 January 1954, p.1.

60 S. G. Xydis, Cyprus: Conflict and Conciliation, 1954-1958 (Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1967), pp.8–9.

61 R. Holland, p.34; for further details see FRUS, 10 March 1954, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1952-54v08/d363 (accessed 14 October 2018); FRUS, 5 April 1954, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1952-54v08/d366 (accessed 14 October 2018);

62 C. Dodd, The History and Politics of the Cyprus Conflict (Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan, 2010), pp.15–16.

63 FO 371/107499, ‘Conversation between King of Greece and FO permanent Under Secretary about negotiations’, 1953, TNA; ‘Cyprus’, Memo by the Secretary of State for the Colonies and the Minister of State (SSC), 21 July 1954, C (54) 245, p.1, TNA – CAB 129/69.

64 N. Crawshaw, The Cyprus Revolt: An Account of the Struggle for Union with Greece (London: George Allen & Unwin, 1978) p.76; P. Dimitrakis, ‘The Value to CENTO of UK Bases on Cyprus’, Middle Eastern Studies Vol. 45, No. 4 (2009), pp.611–624, (at pp.611–612), DOI:10.1080/00263200903009676; A. Stergiou, The Exceptional Case of the British Military Bases on Cyprus, Middle Eastern Studies Vol. 51, No. 2 (2015), pp.285–300, (at pp.286, 289–290). DOI:10.1080/00263206. 2014.947283.

65 ‘Cyprus’, 26 July 1954, C 53(54), TNA – CAB 195/15; 26 July 1954, CC (54) 53, minute 5, pp.4–5, TNA – CAB 128/27.

66 S. Mayes, Makarios: A Biography (London: Macmillan Press, 1981), p.36, 45, 64; P. Dimitrakis, ‘British Intelligence and the Cyprus Insurgency: 1955-1959’, International Journal of Intelligence and Counterintelligence Vol. 21, No. 2 (2008), pp.375–394, (at p.385). DOI:10.1080/08850600701854474.

67 ‘Cyprus’, Memo by the SSC, 21 July 1954, C (54) 245, p.3, TNA – CAB 129/69.

68 27 August 1954, CC (54) 57, minute 6, pp.7–8, TNA – CAB 128/27.

69 ‘Mısır Başvekili, “Araplar Türkiye’yi Sevmiyor” Dedi’ [Prime Minister of Egypt said ‘Arabs dislike Turkey’], Milliyet, 2 August 1954, p.3.

70 ‘Mısır cumhurreisinin azli Sudan’da endişe uyandırdı: General Necib’e iyi muamele edilecek’ [The ouster of Egyptian President raised concerns in Sudan: General Najib will be treated well], Akşam, 15 November 1954, p.1.

71 ‘Cyprus’, Memo by SSFA, 21 October 1954, C (54) 319, p.1, TNA – CAB 129/71.

72 E. Johnson, ‘Keeping Cyprus off the agenda: British and American relations at the United Nations, 1954–58’, Diplomacy & Statecraft Vol. 11, No. 3 (2000), pp.227–255, (at pp.234, 237); J. W. Young, E. G. H. Pedaliu and M. D. Kandiah ed., Britain in Global Politics Volume 2: From Churchill to Blair, (Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013), pp.92–97.

73 ‘Cyprus’, Memo by SSFA, 21 October 1954, C (54) 319, p.1, TNA – CAB 129/71.

74 ‘Üçlü ittifaktan beklenenler’ [The expectations from the tripartite alliance], Milliyet, 1 August 1954, p.1.

75 ‘Kıbrıs meselesi dün reddedildi’ [The Cyprus issue rejected yesterday], Milliyet, 4 March 1955, p.1.

76 ‘Ortadoğu güvenliği: Lübnan ve diğer Arap devletleriyle müzakerelere devam edilecek’ [Middle East security: Negotiations with Lebanon and other Arab states will continue], Akşam, 19 January 1955, p.1.

77 ‘Mısırın son hareketi üzüntü ile karşılandı’ [Egypt’s latest action led to disappointment], Akşam, 21 January 1955, pp.1–2.

78 ‘Türk-Irak Paktı Dün İmzalandı’ [Turkish-Iraqi Pact Signed Yesterday], Milliyet, 25 February 1955, p.1.

79 ‘Mısır ve Suriye bir pakt imzalandılar’ [Egypt and Syria signed a pact], Milliyet, 4 March 1955, p.1.

80 R. E. Powaski, The Cold War: The United States and the Soviet Union, 1917-1991 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998), p.117.

81 ‘Cyprus’, Memo by the SSC, 6 April 1955, C (55) 92, TNA – CAB 129/74.

82 ‘Cyprus’, Memo by the SSFA, 6 April 1955, C (55) 93, TNA – CAB 129/74.

83 11 April 1955, CM (55) 4, minute 8, p.7, TNA – CAB 128/29.

84 N. Peristianis, ‘Between nation and state: nation, nationalism, state, and national identity in Cyprus’ (PhD thesis, Middlesex University, 2008), pp.159–160.

85 Turkey, T.B.M.M. Zabıt Ceridesi [Grand National Assembly of Turkey, Minutes Registry], Term VIII, vol. 23, session 33, (23 January 1950), p.288.

86 Turkey, T.B.M.M. Zabıt Ceridesi [Grand National Assembly of Turkey, Minutes Registry], Term IX, vol. 5, session 50, (24 February 1951), p.698.

87 Turkey, T.B.M.M. Zabıt Ceridesi [Grand National Assembly of Turkey, Minutes Registry], Term IX, vol. 28, session 48, (23 February 1954), p.763.

88 C. Foley, Memoirs of General Grivas (London: Longmans, 1964), pp.16–19, 33.

89 For further details about EOKA see CO 926/455, ‘The nature of EOKA’, 1955-1956, TNA.

90 FCO 141/3339, ‘Cyprus: Bomb and Terrorism Incidents Since 1 April 1955’, 1955-1958; TNA; FO 371/117629/1081/253, ‘Sabotage: report of incidents, 3-4 Apr 1955’, 1955, TNA.

91 ‘Bandung Konferansı yarın açılıyor’ [Bandung Conference starts tomorrow], Milliyet, 17 April 1955, p.1.

92 ‘Bandung Konferansı’ [Bandung Conference], Milliyet, 19 April 1955, p.7.

93 ‘Fatin R. Zorlu Türk görüşünü açıkladı’ [Fatin R. Zorlu expressed the Turkish view], Milliyet, 22 April 1955, p.7.

94 ‘Makarios ihtilal tehdidinde bulundu’ [Makarios threats with revolution], Milliyet, 22 April 1955, p.1.

95 E. Hatzivassiliou, The Suez crisis, Cyprus and Greek Foreign Policy, 1956: A view from the British Archives, Balkan Studies Vol. 30, No. 1 (January 1989), pp.109–129, (at pp.118, 120).

96 ‘Cyprus’, Memo by SSFA and SSC, 11 June 1955, CP (55) 33, TNA – CAB 129/75.

97 ‘Strategic review of the Cyprus problem’, Note by the Minister of Defence (MD), 18 July 1955, CP (55) 82, TNA – CAB 129/76.

98 Ibid.

99 B. Gökay, Soviet Eastern Policy and Turkey, 1920-1991: Soviet Foreign Policy, Turkey and Communism (New York: Routledge, 2006), p.79.

100 ‘Anglo-Soviet relations’, Note by SSFA and SSC, ‘Annex B: Selection of Critical Statements about the Soviet System and Leaders Made by British Statesmen Since 1945’, 13 December 1955, CP (55) 197, p.13, TNA – CAB 129/78.

101 Ibid.

102 ‘Security in the Colonies’, Note by the Lord Chancellor, 23 July 1955, CP (55) 89, pp.51–54, TNA – CAB 129/76.

103 ‘Cyprus’, Note by MD, 25 July 1955, CP (55) 94, TNA – CAB 129/76.

104 ‘Middle East oil’, Note by SSFA, 14 October 1955, CP (55) 152, TNA – CAB 129/78.

105 For the expectations of the British and Americans from Northern Tier, see O. Almog, Britain, Israel, and the United States, 1955–1958: Beyond Suez (London: Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2005). See also FO 371/115508/1073/747G, ‘Northern tier staff talks: US and UK participation; US State Department views’, 1955, TNA.

106 20 October 1955, CM (55) 36, minute 1, pp.3–4, TNA – CAB 128/29.

107 Ibid., ‘Annex C, Cyprus negotiations, Tactics and timetable’, p.8.

108 28 February 1956, CM (56) 17, minute 5, p.7, TNA – CAB 128/30.

109 22 November 1955, CM (55) 42, minute 7, pp.7–8, TNA – CAB 128/29.

110 ‘Cyprus’, 6 March 1956, CM 19(5b), TNA – CAB 195/15; 1956: Britain deports Cyprus Archbishop, BBC News, 9 March 1956, http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/ march/9/newsid_3745000/3745505.stm (accessed 29 October 2018); 5 March 1956, CM (56) 18, minute 1, p.3, TNA – CAB 128/30; 6 March 1956, CM (56) 19, minute 2, pp.3–4, TNA – CAB 128/30.

111 ‘Kıbrıs için Türkiye’nin rızasını almak şarttır’ [The Cyprus issue cannot be solved without Turkey’s consent], Milliyet, 15 March 1956, p.1.

112 19 April 1956, CM (56) 30, minute 2, p.3, TNA – CAB 128/30.

113 ‘Cyprus’, 12 June 1956, CM 41(5b), TNA – CAB 195/15; 12 June 1956, CM (56) 41, minute 6, pp.8–10, TNA – CAB 128/30.

114 O. P. Richmond, ‘Decolonisation and Post-Independence Causes of Conflict: The Case of Cyprus’, Civil Wars Vol. 5, No. 3 (2002), pp.173, DOI: 10.1080/13698240208402511. See also FO 371/123910/1081/1633 ‘Cyprus question: UK proposals on self-determination’, FO 371/123904/1081/1437G, ‘UK Proposals for Self-Determination in Cyprus: Turkish Attitude’, 1956, TNA.

115 T. Ehrlich, Cyprus 1958–1967: International Crisis and the Role of Law, (London: Oxford University Press, 1974), p.19.

116 20 July 1956, CM (56) 51, minute 5, p.6, TNA – CAB 128/30; FO 371/123909/1081/1594, ‘Cairo radio broadcasts to Cyprus in Greek’; FO 371/123876/1081/474, ‘Athens radio broadcasts to Cyprus: relay by Cairo radio’, 1956, TNA.

117 19 July 1956, CM (56) 44, minute 6, p.5, TNA – CAB 128/30.

118 M. J. Turner, British Power and International Relations during the 1950s: A Tenable Position? (New York: Lexington Books, 2009), pp.258–259.

119 BBC, 26 July 1956, ‘1956: Egypt seizes Suez Canal’, Retrieved from http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/july/26/newsid_2701000/2701603.stmz (accessed 29 October 2018); D. R. Thrope, 1 Nov 2006, Telegraph, ‘What we failed to learn from Suez’, Retrieved from http://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/3656288/What-we-failed-to-learn-from-Suez.html (accessed 29 October 2018).

120 E. Hatzivassiliou, p.121.

121 Ibid., p.128.

122 27 July 1956, CM (56) 54, p.7, TNA – CAB 128/30.

123 For the Greek position, see FO 371/123914/1081/1748, ‘Cyprus Question: Greek Proposals for Discussion During Tripartite Talks on Suez’, 3 August 1956, TNA.

124 27 July 1956, CM (56) 54, p.2, TNA – CAB 128/30.

125 Ibid. p.5.

126 D. French, Fighting EOKA: The British Counter-Insurgency Campaign on Cyprus, 1955-1959 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2015), p.62.

127 Ibid., p.39.

128 CO 926/419, ‘Sabotage and Other Incidents in Cyprus’, Harding to Colonial Office, TNA, cited in D. French, p.111.

129 ‘Londra konferansı dün sabah açıldı’ [London conference started yesterday morning], Milliyet, 17 August 1956, p.1.

130 ‘Amerika’nın görüşünü destekledik’ [We supported the US position], Milliyet, 18 August 1956, p.1.

131 ‘Londra’da Amerikanın teklifi destekleniyor’ [The US proposal is supported in London], Milliyet, 21 August 1956, p.3.

132 ‘Bagdad Pact organisation: Privileges and immunities’, Memo by SSFA, 17 October 1956, CP (56) 236, TNA – CAB 129/83.

133 ‘Yeni bir Dünya Harbine Doğru…’ [Towards a New World War…], Milliyet, 6 November 1956, p.1.

134 R. R. Bowie, Suez 1956 (London: Oxford University Press, 1974), p.61. 

135 22 November 1956, CM (56) 87, p.3, TNA – CAB 128/30.

136 ‘Sale of ships to Turkey’, Memo by First Lord of the Admiralty, 18 August 1956, CP (56) 202, TNA – CAB 129/83; FO 371/124037-8, ‘Sale of British warships to Turkey’, 1956, TNA.

137 ‘Exports of Arms: Turkey’, 21 August 1956, CM 60(5b), TNA – CAB 195/15; 21 August 1956, CM (56) 60, minute 3, p.5, TNA – CAB 128/30.

138 ‘Supply of warships to Turkey’, Memo by SSFA, 6 November 1956, CP (56) 257, TNA – CAB 129/84.

139 FCO 141/4356, 141/4357, 141/4358, ‘Cyprus: Lord Radcliffe's constitutional proposals and future policy on Cyprus’, 156-1957, TNA.

140 ‘Cyprus, Constitutional proposals for Cyprus, Cover note’, Memo by SSC, 16 November 1956, CP (56) 264, TNA – CAB 129/84.

141 Ibid.

142 ‘Cyprus’, Memo by SSC, 16 November 1956, CA (56) 264, TNA – CAB 129/84.

143 United Kingdom, HC Deb., vol 562 cc1267-79 (19 December 1956) Cyprus (Lord Radcliffe’s Proposals). Retrieved from https://api.parliament.uk/historic-hansard/commons/1956/dec/19/cyprus-lord-radcliffes-proposals (accessed 29 October 2018).

144 FCO 141/4351, ‘Cyprus: Proposals for Settlement of Cyprus Issue by Partition’, 1956–1957, TNA.

145 ‘Cyprus’, Memo by SSC, 26 November 1956, CA (56) 33, TNA – CAB 129/84.

146 11 December 1956, CM (56) 98, minute 1, p.3, TNA – CAB 128/30.

147 12 December 1956, CM (56) 99, minute 2, pp.3–4, TNA – CAB 128/30.

148 17 December 1956, CM (56) 102, minute 1, p.4, TNA – CAB 128/30.

149 Ibid.

150 ‘Kıbrıs’ın ikiye taksimi muhtemel’ [The partition of Cyprus is possible], Milliyet, 20 December 1956, p.1.

151 Turkey, T.B.M.M. Zabıt Ceridesi [Grand National Assembly of Turkey, Minutes Registry], Term X, vol. l5, Session 22, (28 December 1956), p.353; ‘Kıbrıs’ın taksimine razıyız’ [We accept the partition of Cyprus], Milliyet, 29 December 1956, p.1.

152 ‘Mısır Türkleri barbarlıkla itham ediyor’ [Egypt accuses Turks of barbarism], Milliyet, 23 January 1957, p.5.

153 ‘Başvekilin Kıbrıs’a Dair Yeni Beyanatı’ [The Prime Minister’s Recent Statement on Cyprus], Milliyet, 7 February 1957, p.3.

154 United Kingdom, HC Deb., vol 562 cc1267-79 (19 December 1956), Cyprus (Lord Radcliffe’s Proposals). Retrieved from https://api.parliament.uk/historic-hansard/commons/1956/dec/19/cyprus-lord-radcliffes-proposals (accessed 29 October 2018).

155 ‘Statement on defence, 1957’, Memo by MD, 15 March 1957, C (57) 69, p.6, TNA – CAB 129/86.

156 26 March 1957, CC (57) 24, minute 1, p.3, TNA, – CAB 128/31.

157 B. O. Malley and I. Craig, The Cyprus Conspiracy America, Espionage and the Turkish Invasion, (2nd ed., London: I.B. Tauris Publishers, 2001), p.34.

158 N. Kızılyürek, Bir Hınç ve Şiddet Tarihi: Kıbrıs’ta Statü kavgası ve Etnik Çatışma [History of Hatred and Violence: The status conflict and ethnic conflict in Cyprus], (Istanbul: İstanbul Bilgi Üniversitesi Yayınları, 2017), pp.113–115; ‘Portrait of the Week’, The Spectator, 20 January 1956, p.5. Retrieved from http://archive.spectator.co.uk/article/20th-january-1956/5/portrait-of-the-week (accessed 29 October 2018).

159 ‘Cyprus: Athens Radio broadcasts’, Memo by SSFA and SSC, 20 January 1956, CP (56) 18, TNA – CAB 129/79.

160 B. O. Malley and I. Craig, p.34.

161 21 January 1957, CC (57) 2, minute 4, pp.7–8, TNA – CAB 128/31.

162 ‘Müzakereler başladı’ [The talks started], Milliyet, 19 February 1957, p.1.

163 ‘Amerika Kıbrıs Meselesinin Sulh Yoluyla Halli İçin Üçlü Konferans İstiyor’ [The USA Asks for A Tripartite Conference for the Resolution of the Cyprus Issue], Milliyet, 21 February 1957, p.1.

164 21 January 1957, CC (57) 2, minute 4, pp.7–8, TNA, CAB 128/31.

165 Cyprus and the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation’, Memo by SSFA, 28 February 1957, C (57) 49, TNA – CAB 129/85.

166 ‘NATO, Kıbrıs için arabuluculuk yapacak’ [NATO will mediate for Cyprus], Milliyet, 21 March 1957, p.1; 22 March 1957, CC (57) 22, minute 2, p.5, TNA – CAB 128/31.

167 18 March 1957, CC (57) 21, minute 2, p.4, TNA – CAB 128/31.

168 28 March 1957, CC (57) 25, minute 5, pp.3–5, TNA – CAB 128/31.

169 25 March 1957, CC (57) 23, minute 4, pp.4–7, TNA – CAB 128/31.

170 28 March 1957, CC (57) 25, minute 4, pp.3–5, TNA – CAB 128/31.

171 3 April 1957, CC (57) 29, minute 5, p.6, TNA – 128/31.

172 ‘Malta’, Note by MD, 3 May 1957, C (57) 114, p.6, TNA – CAB 129/87.

173 22 May 1957, CC (57) 42, minute 6, pp.6–7, TNA – CAB 128/31.

174 11 July 1957, CC (57) 51, minute 6, pp.4–7, TNA – CAB 128/31.

175 Ibid.

176 30 July 1957, CC (57) 59, minute 2, pp.3–5, TNA – CAB 128/31.

177 6 January 1958, CC (58) 4, minute 2, pp.3–5, TNA – CAB 128/32.

178 6 November 1957, CC (57) 78, minute 9, pp.9–10, TNA – CAB 128/31; ‘Cyprus’, Memo by SSFA, 20 November 1957, C (57) 276, TNA – CAB 129/90.

179 ‘Kıbrıs’ta sükûnun teminini istiyoruz’ [We want the peace in Cyprus be assured], Milliyet, 12 December 1957, p.1.

180 ‘Yunanistan çekimserleri elde etmeye çalışıyor’ [Greece is trying to take the neutrals on its side], Milliyet, 12 December 1957, p.1.

181 ‘Kıbrıs Türktür’ [Cyprus is Turkish], Milliyet, 16 December 1957, p.1.

182 TMT was the Turkish Cypriot Counterpart of EOKA. For further details on TMT see P. J. Lim, The Evolution of British Counter-Insurgency during the Cyprus Revolt, 1955–1959 (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2018).

183 ‘İngiltere “taksimi” kabul etti’ [Britain accepted the ‘partition’], Bozkurt, 27 January 1958, p.1.

184 N. Kızılyürek, Şiddet Mevsiminin Saklı Tarihi [Hidden History of the Season of Violence], (Limassol: Heterotopia Yayınları, 2015), pp.19–30.

185 Turkey, T.B.M.M. Zabıt Ceridesi [Grand National Assembly of Turkey, Minutes Registry], Term XI, vol. 2, 46 session, (25 February 1958), pp.628, 642.

186 S. G. Xydis, Cyprus Reluctant Republic (The Hague: Mouton, 1973), pp.56, 462.