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Abstract
The last four decades of the nineteenth century were a period when, as a result of increased investment in education as well as closer contacts with Europe, Ottoman Turkey and the provinces of the Empire registered a significant growth in the reading public. Newspapers, journals and books began to be published, sold and read in large numbers partly because, in addition to providing news, views and items of public education, they also published Turkish novels in the original and European novels in translation, in instalments. Several newspapers and journals that began publishing in Turkey in the second half of the nineteenth century were still on the market till the start of the First World War and their editors were usually well-known literary figures, such as Selânikli Tevfik, the subject of the present article. Tevfik was a journalist, an author and poet, a competent translator and an all-round man of letters. His life and works are presented in the article in the context of the period in which he lived. Selânikli Tevfik was a prolific Ottoman literary figure of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. However, he is primarily remembered as one of a sizeable group of hardworking individuals of his generation who, while producing proficient and creative works of different literary genres in Turkish, had also become fully competent in European languages, mainly French. These writers wished to narrow the gap between the European and Ottoman literary environments of their period by translating popular novels into Turkish and publishing them in book form and/or instalments in Ottoman newspapers and journals. Selânikli Tevfik means Tevfik of Salonica [now Thessaloniki], and his full name was Mehmed Tevfik. He lived in an age when surnames were not legally enforced in the Ottoman Empire and thus some attention is required to distinguish him from other writers or well-known people with similar or almost identical names. 1 Not much is known about the life of Selânikli Tevfik; the year of his death is 1910, and his date of birth is almost always given as 1860 though, as will be seen later, it is highly likely to be 1857.
Acknowledgments
Thanks are due to both Handan Kılıç and Onur Atlı of Middle East Technical University Library for searching out copies of some obscure publications, and to Salim Azak for re-sizing texts in the Ottoman script to obtain clarity and legibility.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author.
Notes
1 Selânikli Mehmed Tevfik is, not infrequently, confused with Selânikli Tevfik (1871–1955), who is usually designated as Muharrir (Writer) Selânikli Tevfik, with Mehmed Tevfik (1843–1893) who also adopted the pen name Çaylak (kite – in the sense of an inexperienced bird or ‘rookie’) or with Selânikli Abdi Tevfik, also a writer, playwright, translator and teacher.
2 Elisabeth Özdalga (ed.), Late Ottoman Society – The Intellectual Legacy (London and New York: Routledge Curzon, 2005), 450 pp.
3 For detailed information on Süleyman Nazîf (1870–1927), reference may be made to S. Tanvir Wasti, ‘Süleyman Nazîf – A Multi-Faceted Personality’, Middle Eastern Studies, Vol.50, No.3 (2014), pp.493–508.
4 These articles, whose heading translates as ‘The Influence of Western Literature on Our Literature’ were published in the newspaper issues of 17 December 1921, 21 December 1921, 24 December 1921, 28 December 1921 and 4 January 1922. For a fuller assessment of these articles, see Abdulhakim Tuğluk, ‘Süleyman Nazif’in Kaleminden Bir Silsile-i Makalât: Garb Edebiyâtının Edebiyâtımıza Te’sîri’ [A Range of Articles from the Pen of Süleyman Nazîf: The Influence of Western Literature on Our Literature], Dicle Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimleri Enstitüsü Dergisi [Journal of the Social Sciences Institute of Dicle (Tigris) University], Vol. 8, No. 15 (2016), pp.243–68.
5 The twenty-nine names, in order of date of birth, read like a galaxy of nineteenth-century Ottoman Turkish literature and culture, and include, among others, Şinâsî, Ziyâ Paşa, Sadullah Paşa, Namık Kemâl, Recâizâde Ekrem Bey, Abdülhak Hâmid and Muallim Nâci. Information on these chosen writers may be found in S. Tanvir Wasti, An Introduction to Late Ottoman Turkish Poetry (Berkeley: Computers and Structures, Inc. 2012), 288 pp.
6 Ayşe Banu Karadağ, ‘Türk Çeviri Tarihimizde “Mütercim” Selânikli Tevfik’ [The Translator Selânikli Tevfik in our Turkish Translation History], Turkish Studies - International Periodical for the Languages, Literature and History of Turkish or Turkic (Ankara: Yıldırım Beyazıt University), Volume 8/10, Fall 2013, pp.355–63.
7 Ahmed İhsan (1868 – 1942), who took the surname Tokgöz (contented/satisfied/proud) after the Turkish Law related to surnames was passed in 1934, was a journalist, translator, publisher and politician. He also served as the Chairman of the Turkish Olympic Committee between the years 1908 and 1921. Much information on his life and career may be found in S. Tanvir Wasti, ‘Ahmed İhsan and the “Wealth of the Sciences”’, Middle Eastern Studies, Vol. 52, No. 2 (2016), pp.359–74. In the entry by Ziyad Ebüzziya for Ahmed İhsan Tokgöz in the TDV Islam Ansiklopedisi [Religious Foundation of Turkey Encyclopaedia of Islam] (Ankara: Türkiye Diyanet Vakfı, 1989), Vol.2, pp.94–95, a list of forty translations produced from the works of French authors and published by Ahmed İhsan is given, of which fourteen comprise translations from Jules Verne.
8 Ahmed Midhat Efendi (1844 – 1912), a famous author, journalist, translator and publisher of the late Ottoman period whose name is frequently written as Ahmet Mithat Efendi. He was nicknamed ‘the writing machine’ because of his copious output in all areas of literature except poetry. A list of his works is available: M. Sabri Koz, ‘Ahmet Mithat Efendi’nin Eserleri’ [The Works of Ahmed Midhat Efendi], Kitap-lık (Istanbul: Yapı Kredi Yayınları), August–September 2002, pp.160–73. It contains around 220 separate items of which about 20 are novels translated from the French.
9 Mustafa Refik (1866, 1867 or 1868 – 1913), was also a journalist, translator and writer whose mother was a sister of Ahmed Midhat Efendi (see note 8). In a long list towards the end of the thesis by Habibe Yılmaz, ‘Mustafa Refik’in Hayatı ve Eserleri Üzerine Bir İnceleme’ [A Study on Mustafa Refik’s Life and his Literary Works] (Manisa: Celâl Bayar University, 2019), pp.169, over 65 references to published translations of stories and novels by Mustafa Refik are also given.
10 Ahu Selin Erkul Yağcı, ‘Turkey’s Reading (R)evolution – A Study on Books, Readers and Translation (1840–1940)’ (PhD Thesis, Boğaziçi University, Istanbul, 2011), 404 pp.
11 The entry in the old Ottoman Turkish script is located in Mehmed Tahir Bursalı, Osmanlı Müellifleri [Ottoman Authors], Vol. II, (Ankara: Bizim Büro Basımevi, 2000), p.250.
12 These will be treated in the present article in the section on translations by Selânikli Tevfik.
13 The entry on Selânikli Tevfik is in the six-volume Türkiye Ansiklopedisi [Turkish Encyclopaedia], eds Ekrem Üzümeri, Selâmi Dinçer and Sadi Kazancı, Vol. V, (Ankara: Rüzgârlı Matbaa & Istanbul: Ali Pulhan Matbaası, 1957), p.95.
14 Mahrec-i Aklâm was the name of a superior training academy founded in 1862 as a result of the efforts of the then Ottoman Minister of Education Kemal Pasha. The title literally translates as ‘the outlet for pens’ and, more idiomatically, as ‘the source of scribes’, and it was created to produce junior civil servants for the Ottoman bureaucracy. It was a highly successful venture and was later merged into the School of Political Sciences founded at Istanbul University in 1876. Among famous graduates of this academy may be mentioned the following: Ahmed Rıza (1858–1930), an Ottoman politician who self-exiled himself to Paris in 1889 where he issued a newspaper called Méchveret (Consultation). He was an early leader of the Committee of Union and Progress (CUP) and returned to Turkey after the proclamation of the Constitution in 1908; Hüseyin Nâzım Pasha (1854 – 1927), a high-ranking Ottoman Minister and sometime Governor of Syria. See S. T. Wasti, ‘A Distinguished and Loyal Ottoman Civil Servant: Hüseyin Nâzım Pasha’, Middle Eastern Studies, Vol. 49, No. 3 (2013), pp.364–82; Hüseyin Rahmi Gürpınar (1864 – 1944), Turkish politician, journalist and author of 54 published novels, stories and plays. See M.Z. Pakalın, Osmanlı Tarih Deyimleri ve Terimler Sozlüğü [Dictionary of Ottoman Historical Expressions and Terms] (Istanbul: Millî Eğitim Bakanlığı Yayınları, 1993), Vol.II, pp.385–86.
15 However, in the article by İsmail Turan, ‘Edebiyatımıza yaptığı katkılar ile parantez açan bir yazar: Selanikli Tevfik’, [Selanikli Tevfik: A writer who with his contributions to our literature opened a separate path], Türk Dili [The Turkish Language] (Ankara, September 2019), pp.86–91, it is mentioned that Tevfik went to Vienna for the treatment of a throat disease.
16 İbrahim Alâettin Gövsa, Türk Meşhurları Ansiklopedisi [Encyclopaedia of Famous Turks], (Istanbul: Yedigün Neşriyatı, 1946), 420 pp. Alâettin Gövsa (1889 – 1949) was a Turkish writer, poet, educationist and politician. The entry for Selânikli Tevfik is on p.348 of this book.
17 Nadeem Javed, ‘Selanikli Tevfik’in (1860–1910) Hindistan Seyahatnamesi, (metin-inceleme-indeks)’ [Selanikli Tevfik’s Indian Travelogue (Text – Analysis – Index)] (Master’s Thesis, Marmara University, Istanbul, 2019), 287 pp.
18 Münir Süleyman Çapanoğlu (1894–1973) was, apart from his newspaper columns and articles, the author of several books, including novels and detective stories. His most read work is very likely Basın Tarihine Dair Bilgiler ve Hatıralar [Information and Memories related to the History of the Press] (Istanbul: Hür Türkiye Dergisi Yayınları, 1962), pp.160. The subtitle of the book states the following (in Turkish): In addition to articles by the author, features and items by earlier well-known writers, such as Ahmet Rasim, Ahmet Cevdet, Ahmet İhsan, Hüseyin Cahit, Adnan Adıvar and excerpts from the History of the Press published by Abdurrahman Adil 40–45 years ago in the Arabic script are also included. This work will henceforth be referred to as Çapanoğlu, Information and Memories.
19 Çapanoğlu, Information and Memories, pp.111–16.
20 Ahmed Midhat Efendi (see note 8) was also the founder and manager of one of Ottoman Turkey’s best known daily newspapers titled Tercüman-ı Hakikat [The Interpreter of Truth] which first appeared on 27 June 1878 and continued to appear, even after Ahmed Midhat’s death in December 1912, till 12 January 1924.
21 Abdurrahman Adil İren (1862–1942) was born in Salonica and graduated from the Faculty of Law of the University of Istanbul. He practised as an advocate and also lectured in the University. He knew several languages, composed verses and was the author of several books on Law. He was also the founder or publisher of a few Turkish journals. Many articles on various subjects by him were published in newspapers of the time, e.g. his Matbu‘ât-ı Osmaniye Hatıraları [Memories of Ottoman Publications] were serialized in the newspaper İkdam [Earnest Effort] in 1921. After the law related to surnames was passed in 1934, Abdurrahman Adil took the surname İren (transcribed in several sources as Eren).
22 Nurcan Koyun, ‘Sabah Gazetesi (7202–7932 sayılar İnceleme ve Seçilmiş Metinler)’ [The Sabah Newspaper (An Examination and Selected Texts from issues 7202 – 7932)] (Master’s Thesis, Niğde University, Niğde, 2015), 1270 pp.
23 Diran Kelekyan (1862–1915), a multilingual Ottoman Armenian author, journalist and translator who worked at the offices of several newspapers, such as Cihan [The World] and Sabah [Morning]. He studied at Marseilles and spent some years in exile outside the Ottoman territories. He became editor at the Sabah newspaper in 1898, and wrote many leading articles in that paper. In Turkey, he became well-known as the compiler of a Turkish – French dictionary, which was published in 1911. He had to leave Istanbul on 8 May 1915 as a result of a governmental order dealing with the relocation of Armenians to different parts of the Ottoman territories. During the deportations he was killed in Sivas in October 1915. His name is sometimes written as Dikran Kelekyan or Diran Kelekian.
24 These include a note by M. İhsan on behalf of the graduates of the Vefa Secondary School, Istanbul expressing their condolences on the loss of their teacher, and mentioning that relatives of the deceased had left by train for Vienna to bring the body back to Salonica for burial, condolences expressed by Dr Arif İsmet, a deputy from Biga in the Marmara region of Turkey, and a public statement on behalf of the family by Nihat, a son-in-law of the late Selânikli Tevfik, thanking all well-wishers who offered personal condolences or sent messages of sympathy after the sudden death of the head of the family.
25 Although the dates and details are not clear, Selânikli Tevfik over the course of his long career worked and/or wrote articles for the following newspapers/journals: Tercüman-ı Hakikat, Ceride-i Askeriye [The Military Newspaper/Magazine], Saadet, Sabah, Tarîk, Tanin [Ringing/Resonance] and Servet [Wealth]. Furthermore, between July 1886 and April 1888, he collaborated with Muallim Naci, a son-in-law of Ahmed Midhat Efendi, in publishing a weekly magazine called Teavün–i Aklâm (literally ‘cooperation of pens’) introducing and evaluating literary publications in Turkish, with an occasional overview of the French literary scene. For Muallim Naci, refer to S. Tanvir Wasti, An Introduction to Late Ottoman Turkish Poetry (Berkeley: Computers and Structures, Inc., 2012), Chapter 6 titled Muallim Naci, pp.109–21.
26 For information on Süreyya Pasha, refer to S. Tanvir Wasti, ‘The Last Chroniclers of the Mabeyn’, Middle Eastern Studies, Vol. 32, No. 2 (1996), pp.1–29.
27 Mustafa Oğuz, ‘II Abdülhamid Döneminden Bir Osmanlı Aydın Portresi: Selanikli Tevfik’ [The Portrait of an Ottoman Intellectual from the Era of Abdülhamid II], Chapter 10 in Yunus Emre Tansü (ed.), Tarih Alanında Seçme Yazılar – I [Selected Articles in the Field of History – I] (Gaziantep: Özgür Yayınları, 2023), pp.257–87. Refer to the following address: https://doi.org/10.58830/ozgur.pub92.c416.
28 Musavver means Illustrated, and Servet-i Fünun means ‘Wealth of the Sciences’. This celebrated journal under the editorship of Ahmed İhsan Tokgöz was a feature of the journalistic scene in Turkey between 1891 and 1944. See S. Tanvir Wasti, ‘Ahmed İhsan and the “Wealth of the Sciences”’, Middle Eastern Studies, Vol. 52, No. 2 (2016), pp.359–74.
29 The Illustrated Annual for 1910 was published in 1911 by Ahmed İhsan ve Şürekâsı Matbaacılık Osmanlı Şirketi [Ahmed Ihsan and Partners Ottoman Publishing Co.], Istanbul and reports the death of Selânikli Tevfik on page 326. The Turkish text in pdf format is accessible at the following address: http://ktp.isam.org.tr/pdfsal/D02937132700000002.pdf.
30 The umbrella term ‘novels’ is used here to include novellas, narratives, and collections of short stories as well as long short stories.
31 Eshabil Bozkurt and Ayşe Banu Karadağ, ‘II. Abdülhamid Dönemi Roman Çevirileri’ [Translated Novels during the Hamidian Era], RumeliDE Dil ve Edebiyat Araştırmaları Dergisi [RumeliDE Journal of Language and Literature Studies], Kırklareli, No. 3 (2015), pp.43–77. See Nos. 393 to 407 in the chart given at the end of this article for novels translated by Selânikli Tevfik.
32 Johann Strauss, ‘“Kütüp ve Resail-i Mevkute” [Books and Periodicals] Printing and publishing in a multi-ethnic society’, Chapter 7 in Elisabeth Özdalga (ed.), Late Ottoman Society: The Intellectual Legacy (London and New York; Routledge, 2005), pp.225–53.
33 The list is available at the following address: https://hazine.info/wp-content/uploads/2020/05/Erdman-HAZINE-Ottoman-Literary-Periodicals-Guide.pdf.
34 Selçuk Çıkla, ‘Tanzimat’tan Günümüze Gazete-Edebiyat İlişkisi’ [The Newspaper-Literature Relationship from the Ottoman Reformation to the Present], Türkbilig, Ankara, Vol. 18 (2009), pp.34–63.
35 Such places of assembly over a cup of tea or coffee were often called Kıraathane [Reading Place] as newspapers were freely available for reading on the premises.
36 İbrahim Şinâsî (1824–1871) was a poet and prose writer who is considered one of the founders of the Modern School of Ottoman Literature. Refer to S. Tanvir Wasti, An Introduction to Late Ottoman Turkish Poetry (Berkeley: Computers and Structures, Inc. 2012), Chapter 3 titled ‘The Works of Şinâsî, Ziyâ Pasha and Nâmık Kemal’, pp.25–73.
37 Mehmed Said (later Pasha) (1838 – 1914) was an Ottoman civil servant for most of his career but worked as an Editor on the Cerîde-i Havadis newspaper for several years. In later life he rose in the estimation of the sultan Abdülhamid and was appointed Grand Vizier several times. For further information, see S. Tanvir Wasti, ‘The Last Chroniclers of the Mabeyn’, Middle Eastern Studies, Vol. 32, No. 2, April 1996, pp.1–29.
38 A couple of published items by Selânikli Tevfik have not been included in the list, e.g. Muhtasar Târîh-i Osmânî [Brief Ottoman History], as this was a textbook for high schools in the Empire. A journal he published for a few issues while still a student at the Mahrec-i Aklâm Academy which was called Çekmece [a sliding drawer], and some small political pamphlets have also been left out.
39 A list has been made by Hakan Yekbaş, Item on Selânikli Mehmed TEVFÎK in Türk Edebiyatı İsimler Sözlüğü [Dictionary of Names in Turkish Literature], at the address below:
https://teis.yesevi.edu.tr/madde-detay/tevfik-mehmed-tevfik-selanikli. In the present article, a few items not mentioned by Yekbaş have been added to the list.
40 Fırat Karagülle, ‘Ara Nesil Romanında Sosyal Muhteva’ [Social Themes in the Novels of the Intermediate Generation] (Master’s Thesis, Istanbul University, Istanbul, 2004), 230 pp. See pp.227–28. The Intermediate Generation is the name given to Turkish writers and poets who were active during the period roughly spanning 1875–1896.
41 Although the date of Abdülezel’s death is not disputed, various later years are given in different sources for his birth.
42 The verse part of Selânikli Tevfik’s work consists of 29 stanzas, each of 4 lines, with the rhyme scheme generally corresponding to a-a-b-a. The Turkish text of the quatrain translated in the article is as follows:
Çocuklar! Hakkınız var sekseninde ben gibi, bir pîr
Sefer etmekle olmak istemez elbette şöhret-gîr
Fakat bu yaşta olmuş olsa da mü’min için lâzım
Temennî-i şehâdetle fuâdın eylemek tenvir
Along with other poetic tributes to Abdülezel Pasha, the text of Tevfik’s Turkish verses may be found in Erol Ülgen, ‘1897 Türk-Yunan Savaşı’nın Ünlü Komutanlarından Şehit Abdülezel Paşa (1828-1897), Hayatı ve Hakkında yazılan Şiirler’ [The Life of the Martyr Abdülezel Pasha (1828 – 1897), one of the Famous Commanders of the 1897 Greco-Turkish War, and Poems written about him], Belleten, Vol. 42 (1994), pp.169–203.
43 The original quatrain in Turkish that ends the poem reads as follows:
Vasiyyet kâmilen icra olunmuş iş de bitmiştir
Fakat şanlı kumandan şân ile göçmüş de gitmiştir
Kalan gâziler etti resm-i tedfînin hemân icrâ
Hudâ kabrinde ol anda garîk-i nûru etmiştir.
44 DerSaadet [Gate of Happiness] has been used as one of several poetic names for Istanbul for several centuries.
45 H. Dilek Batislam, ‘Musavver Hindistan Seyahatnamesi’ [Illustrated Indian Travelogue], Toplumsal Tarih, No. 48 (1997), pp.62–64. This article will be referred to henceforth as Batislam, Travelogue.
46 Pîrî Reis (1465?–1554) was a great Ottoman sea Commander and famous cartographer. Among many other naval battles, he also fought against the Portuguese fleet in the Indian Ocean. He was later appointed Supreme Naval Captain for Egypt, whereupon he left the fleet and crews in Basra for maintenance and repairs, arriving in Egypt to take up his post with 3 ships full of treasure. This was considered neglect of duty by the Governors of Basra and Egypt as well as the Sultan, as a result of which Pîrî Reis was executed in 1554 when he was over 80 years old.
47 Seydî Ali Reis (1498–1562) was an Ottoman admiral, author and navigator. He took part in several naval battles, including some encounters with the Portuguese after which he was forced to take refuge in the Indian port of Surat. Here he successfully fought off the Portuguese attacks, but was eventually forced to return to Turkey overland.
48 Selânikli Tevfik is shrewd enough to mention, in his Mukaddime (Foreword) to the book, that illustrations in travelogues even attract people who are unable to read and write. This has also been noted in Batislam, Travelogue, p.64.
49 These engravings are like a catalogue of the exotic, from Hindu deities depicted in bronze and stone to Buddhist priests in their gowns, from snake charmers to a ferocious warrior of the Gond tribe, from famous monuments like the Temples in Amritsar, Khajuraho, Elephanta, Ellora and Karla (Karli) to ancient ruins, from the tomb of the Emperor Akbar to a depiction of the Parsee (burial) tower of silence, from threaders of pearls in Ceylon to fishermen hanging fish to dry, and from the baiting of wild elephants to domesticated elephants used for transportation.
50 Batislam, Travelogue, p.62.
51 The translation of the relevant statement at the bottom of page 14 of the book is as follows: ‘…to present these special features of India and its strange climatic aspects, as well as other unique differences, for the benefit of the readers of our newspaper, we considered it would be useful to produce this travelogue by summarizing the available travel accounts of interest written by others’.
52 Christoph Herzog and Raoul Motika, ‘Orientalism "alla turca": Late 19th / Early 20th Century Ottoman Voyages into the Muslim “Outback”’, Die Welt des Islams, Vol. 40, No. 2 (2000), pp.139–95.
53 On another relevant matter related to the contents and presentation of the book Herzog and Motika add the following:
…Selanikli Tevfik's book on India (Musavver Hindistan Seyahatnamesi), which appeared in 1900, was still illustrated with engravings, most of them probably copies taken from European books.
54 Picturesquely rendered in Turkish as İfade – i Meram or Expression of Intention.
55 Yücel Çelik, ‘“Nevsâl-ı Askeri” Kitabının transkripsiyonu’ [A Transcription of the book Nevsâl – ı Askeri (Military Yearbook) (Master’s Thesis, Gaziantep University, Gaziantep, 2013), 257 pp.
56 The copy of the book used for the present article was downloaded from the library of the Türk Tarih Kurumu (Turkish Historical Society). It has 30 pages in the old Ottoman script altogether (with an anonymous handwritten note at the bottom of the last page that mentions that no further material exists in print for the book).
57 Osman (1258–1326) was the founder of the Ottoman state, where the name Ottoman is actually the Middle French version of Osman. Gazi (also Ghazi) is a title often given to a victorious Muslim warrior. Osman Gazi was succeeded by Orhan Gazi (1281–1362).
58 Mehmed II (1432–1481) ruled between 1451 and his death.
59 Süleyman II (1495–1566) ruled between 1520 and his death.
60 Şeyh Edebali (1206–1326) was a teacher and father-in-law of Osman Gazi. A religious scholar who founded madrasas at Bilecik and near Eskişehir, he also proposed policies for the growth and stability of the young Ottoman state and is therefore considered its first Kadı (Qadi or Kadi or Chief Judge).
61 Çandarlı Kara Halil Hayrettin Paşa (? – 1387) came from a village in the region of Sivrihisar, and details of his early life are not available. However, by virtue of his marriage to a daughter of a religious teacher at the İznik madrasa he became a brother-in-law of Şeyh Edebali and thereby a relative of Osman Gazi. He spent several years as a Kadı before being appointed the Ottoman state’s first Kazasker (Military Judge; the title is formed from the words Kadı (judge) and Asker (soldier)). In this role he also accompanied sultans on their military expeditions and, with time and as a result of his talents, progressed to high positions of military command, eventually becoming Beylerbeyi (Commander in Chief) and, later, the first Grand Vizier to sultan Murad I.
62 Tarih – i Atâ is the common expression used for the 5-volume history by Tayyarzâde Atâullah Ahmed Bey (1810 – 1877) titled Osmanlı Saray Tarihi [History of the Ottoman Court] (Istanbul: Yahya Efendi Matbaası/Ali Efendi Matbaası, 1876), Vol. 1, 316 pp.; Vol. 2, 227 pp.; Vol. 3, 329 pp.; Vol. 4, 322 pp. and Vol. 5, 432 pp.
63 Called akıncı in Turkish and rendered as akindji or raider or irregular light cavalry in English.
64 This university, about 200 miles from Ankara, is now named Niğde Ömer Halisdemir University.
65 Zehra Üçpınar, ‘Sabah Gazetesi (1895-1898) İnceleme ve Seçilmiş Metinler, 2191 – 2920’ [The Sabah Newspaper (1895 – 1898) An Examination and Selected Texts, issues 2191 – 2920] (Master’s Thesis, Niğde University, Niğde, 2012), 842 pp.
66 Gökhan Özkan, ‘Sabah Gazetesi (3651 – 4380 Sayılar İnceleme ve Seçilmiş Metinler)’ [The Sabah Newspaper (An Examination and Selected Texts from issues 3651 – 4380)] (Master’s Thesis, Niğde University, Niğde, 2015), 668 pp.
67 Levent Yüksel, ‘Sabah Gazetesi üzerine bir İnceleme (1902-1903 / 4381 – 5096)’ [An Examination of the Sabah Newspaper (issues 4381 – 5096 of 1902-1903) (Master’s Thesis, Niğde University, Niğde, 2014), 681 pp.
68 Kağan Kariper, ‘Sabah Gazetesi (5742-6471) Sayılar - İnceleme ve Seçilmiş Metinler’ [The Sabah Newspaper (An Examination and Selected Texts from issues 5742 – 6471) (Master’s Thesis, Niğde University, Niğde, 2014), 870 pp.