Between men, time and the state: education of girls during the Late Ottoman Empire (1859–1908)

ABSTRACT

Women’s education becomes a prominent issue in the Ottoman Empire with the modern period, leading to the opening of the first modern public school for girls as a rüşdiyye (secondary) school. This article critically examines the curriculum of girls’ rüşdiyyes from their foundation in 1859 until the beginning of the Second Constitutional Period in 1908. The formation, development and content of the curriculum are investigated both in terms of social demands, and in comparison with the curriculum of boys’ rüşdiyyes. Curricula of girls and boys, women’s magazines and magazines on education of the selected period were analysed via document review. As a historical case study evaluation, this study employs descriptive analyses to obtain and interpret results. We argue that women’s education is perceived as a way of raising a moral generation, as well as keeping the family institution alive. When compared to boys’, there are fewer courses and more simplified content in girls’ curriculum. Although this gap closes in time, these curricula are still different regarding two aspects: domestic courses always exist, and religious content increases in girls’ curriculum throughout this period. Accordingly, women are prioritised in social discipline and their disciplinisation is seen as a priority.

KEYWORDS:

• Education of girls
• history of education
• the Ottoman Empire
• Tanzimat Period
• Hamidian Period

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.

Notes

¹ Fortna, Imperial Classroom: Islam, the State, and Education in the Late Ottoman Empire (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002), 40.

² Akşit, Kızların sessizliği: Kız enstitülerinin uzun tarihi [Silence of Girls: Long History of the Girls’ Institutes] (İstanbul: İletişim Yayınları, 2012), 73.

³ Somel, “‘Osmanlı modernleşme döneminde kızların eğitimi’ [The Development of Female Education During the Ottoman Reform Period]”, Kebikeç 10 (2000): 236.

⁴ Seyfi Kenan, “III. Selim dönemi egitim anlayısında arayıslar”, in Selim III and His Era from Ancien Régime to New Order [in Turkish], ed. Seyfi Kenan (İstanbul: İSAM, 2010), 130–4.

⁵ Bayram Kodaman, “Tanzimat’tan sonra kadın [Woman After the Reformation]”, in Tercüman kadın ansiklopedisi (İstanbul: Tercüman Yayınları, 1984), 2, 615.

⁶ Kenan, “III. Selim dönemi”, 129–38.

⁷ Mahmud Cevat İbnü’ş Şeyh Nafi, Maarif-i Umumiye Nezareti tarihçe-i teşkilat ve icraatı: XIX. asır Osmanlı maarif tarihi [History of the Ottoman Ministry of Education: Nineteenth-Century Educational History], ed. Taceddin Kayaoğlu (Ankara: Yeni Türkiye, 2001), 3–5.

⁸ Kodaman, Abdülhamid devri eğitim sistemi [Hamidian Period’s Education System]. (Ankara: Türk Tarih Kurumu, 1991), 9.

⁹ Hasan Ali Koçer, Türkiye’de modern eğitimin doğuşu ve gelişimi [The Birth and Development of Modern Education in Turkey] (İstanbul: MEB, 1991), 56–65.

¹⁰ Fortna, Imperial Classroom, 241–7.

¹¹ Selim Deringil, The Well-Protected Domains: Ideology and the Legitimation of Power in the Ottoman Empire (1876–1909) (London: I.B. Tauris, 1999), 94–7.

¹² Koçer, Türkiye’de modern eğitim, 125.

¹³ Akşit, Kızların sessizliği, 21–56.

¹⁴ Deniz Kandiyoti, “End of empire: Islam, nationalism and women in Turkey”, in Women, Islam and The State, ed. Deniz Kandiyoti (London: Macmillan, 1991), 25–7.

¹⁵ Serpil Çakır, Osmanlı kadın hareketi [Ottoman Women’s Movement] (İstanbul: Metis, 2013), 407.

¹⁶ Frierson, “Women in Late Ottoman Intellectual History”, in Late Ottoman Society: The Intellectual Heritage, ed. Elizabeth Özdalga (London: Routledge, 2005), 142.

¹⁷ After the first rüşdiyye school (1847), the number of these schools increased to 12 in Istanbul in five years’ time. Rüşdiyye schools, designed as an upper level for sıbyan mektebi, aimed to provide further education for those who are willing to continue higher education. The graduates of sıbyan mektebi at the age of nine or ten were admitted regardless of their socio-economic status. In time, rüşdiyyes had to include primary-level courses as the education given by sıbyan mektebi was inadequate and thus their status turned into elementary level. See Yahya Akyüz, Türk eğitim tarihi M.Ö. 1000–M.S. 2008 [History of Turkish Education, 1000 BC–2008 AD] (Ankara: Pegem Akademi, 2008), 164; and Somel, “Education, Secondary”, in Historical Dictionary of the Ottoman Empire (Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press, 2003), 82.

¹⁸ In 1874–1875, there were 11 girls’ rüşdiyyes with 361 students and 18 boys’ rüşdiyyes with 1859 students in Istanbul. In 1900, there were 1779 girls in nine girls’ rüşdiyyes and 3959 boys in 15 boys’ rüşdiyyes in Istanbul. See Akyüz, Türk eğitim tarihi, 164; Yasemin Tümer Erdem, II. Meşrutiyet’ten Cumhuriyet’e kızların eğitimi [Girls’ Education from the Second Constitution Until the Republic] (Ankara: Türk Tarih Kurumu, 2013), 169, 186; and Uğur Ünal, II. Meşrutiyet öncesi Osmanlı rüşdiyeleri (1897–1907) [Ottoman Secondary Schools Before the Second Constitution], (Ankara: Türk Tarih Kurumu, 2015), 86, 89.

¹⁹ Daniel Stufflebeam, “Evaluation Models”, New Directions for Evaluation 89 (2001): 34.

²⁰ Daniel Stufflebeam and Chris L. S. Coryn, Evaluation Theory, Models, and Applications, 2nd ed. (San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, Wiley, 2014), 292.

²¹ Sharan B. Merriam and Elizabeth J. Tisdell, Qualitative Research: A Guide to Design and Implementation, 4th ed. (San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, Wiley, 2016), 40.

²² Ottoman Turkish is a combination of Arabic, Persian and Turkish rules and vocabulary, and written in an alphabet consisting of letters from Arabic and Persian scripts.

²³ Maârif-i Umûmiye Nizamnâmesi [The Regulation of Public Education], Cemazeyilahir 24, 1286 [1 October 1869], Y.EE./112-6-0, pp. 11–13, Başbakanlık Osmanlı Arşivi [The Ottoman Archives of the Prime Minister’s Office], İstanbul.

²⁴ Salnâme-i Devlet-i Aliyye-i Osmaniyye (SDAO) [Ottoman State Yearbook], (Istanbul: Matbaa-i Amire, 1294 [1877/1878]), 359, retrieved from Turkiye Diyanet Foundation Centre for Islamic Studies Ottoman Salname Database (D02467), http://isamveri.org/?url=salname; SDAO (Istanbul: Matbaa-i Amire, 1295 [1878]), 259; and SDAO (Istanbul: Matbaa-i Amire, 1296 [1878/1879]), 76.

²⁵ Salnâme-i Nezaret-i Maârif-i Umûmiyye (SNMU) [Yearbook of the Ministry of Public Education] (Istanbul: Matbaa-i Amire, 1316 [1898/1899]), 393–434, retrieved from Turkiye Diyanet Foundation Centre for Islamic Studies Ottoman Salname Database (D02473), http://isamveri.org/?url=salname; SNMU (Istanbul: Matbaa-i Amire, 1317 [1899/1900]), 433–470; and SNMU (Istanbul: Matbaa-i Amire, 1318 [1900/1901]), 256–294; SNMU (Istanbul: Matbaa-i Amire, 1319 [1901/1902]), 160.

²⁶ Preface to Terakkî-i muhadderat 1 (1286 [1869]): 1–2.

²⁷ “Bir varakadır: Terbiye-i nisvan [A Document: Education of Women]”, Terakkî-i muhadderat 11 (1286 [1869]): 3.

²⁸ “Osmanlı kadınlarının terbiyesine dâir manzûme-i efkar gazetesinde görülen benttir [An Article on Women’s Education from Manzûme-i Efkar Newspaper]”, Terakkî-i muhadderat 7 (1286 [1869]): 3.

²⁹ [An Untitled Article on the Education of Girls], Terakkî-i muhadderat 19 (1286 [1869]): 2–3.

³⁰ “Osmanlı kadınlarının terbiyesine dâir”, 4.

³¹ Preface to Terakkî-i muhadderat, 1.

³² “Bir varakadır”, 2–3.

³³ “Bir varakadır”, 3; Preface to Terakkî-i muhadderat, 1; and “Rüşdiye mektebi şâkirdânından bir kız ile vâlidesinin muhâveresi [A Conversation Between a Girl from Rüşdiyye School and her Mother]”, Terakkî-i muhadderat 22 (1286 [1869]): 2–3.

³⁴ “Osmanlı kadınlarının terbiyesine dâir”, 3.

³⁵ Karabacak, “Ahmet Cevdet Paşa’nın dil bilgisi kitapları üzerine [On Linguistic Books of Ahmet Cevdet Pasha]”, Turkish Studies 7, no. 2 (2012): 614–15.

³⁶ “Bir makale” [An Article], Âyine 1 (1292 [1875]): 2.

³⁷ [An Untitled Article on Reading and Writing], Âyine 29 (1293 [1876]): 2–4.

³⁸ “Maârifin kadınlara lüzûmu” [The Necassity of Education for Women], Vakit yahud mürebbî-i muhadderat 1 (1291 [1875]): 1–2; and “Taleb-i ilm” [The Request for Education], Âyine 1 (1292 [1875]): 2–3.

³⁹ “Bir makale”, 2.

⁴⁰ [On Reading and Writing], 2–4.

⁴¹ “Maârifin kadınlara lüzûmu”, 1–2.

⁴² Ibid., 2.

⁴³ “Bir makale”, 2 [An Untitled Article on Women’s Duties], Âyine 2 (1292 [1875]): 1; [On Reading and Writing], 3.

⁴⁴ Preface to Âyine 1 (1292 [1875]): 1.

⁴⁵ See note 42 above.

⁴⁶ “Taleb-i ilm”, 3.

⁴⁷ [On Reading and Writing], 2–4.

⁴⁸ Redhouse Turkish/Ottoman-English Dictionary, 17th ed., s.v. “Muhâzarât”. We want to thank Professor Mustafa Kaçalin for helping us in clarifying the definition of this conception.

⁴⁹ “İfâde-i meram” [Statement of Intent], Âile 1 (1297 [1880]): 1–2.

⁵⁰ Cemaliye and Fahriye, “Kızların tâlim ve terbiyesi: Kızlar için tâlim ve terbiyenin lüzumu” [Education of Girls: The Necessity of Education for Girls], Parça bohçası 1 (1305 [1889/1990]): 7.

⁵¹ Zeynep Sünbül [An Untitled Article on Women’s Reading and Writing], HMG 7 (1313 [1895]): 3.

⁵² “Kadınların tahsîli hakkında bir mütâlaa 1 [An Opinion on Women’s Education 1]”, HMG 20 (1313 [1895]): 1.

⁵³ “Âile” [The Family], Âile 1 (1297 [1880]): 4.

⁵⁴ Cemaliye and Fahriye, “Kızların tâlim ve terbiyesi”, 10.

⁵⁵ Vassaf, “Saâdet-i âile [Family Happiness]”, Maârif 8 (1309 [1891]): 114.

⁵⁶ Ahmed Fuad, “Terbiye-i etfâl [Education of Children]”, Maârif 13 (1309 [1891]): 195.

⁵⁷ Sıddıka bint-i Mustafa, “Terbiye-i etfâlin bir mühim meselesi [An Important Issue of the Education of Children]”, Maârif 183 (1311 [1895]): 216.

⁵⁸ Sıddıka bint-i Mustafa, “Terbiye-i etfâl”, 216–18; “Terbiyeden” [Education continued], Maârif 184 (1311 [1895]): 225–6; “Terbiyeden”, Maârif 185 (1311 [1895]): 238–9; “Terbiyeden”, Maârif 186 (1311 [1895]): 252–3; “Terbiyeden”, Maârif 187 (1311 [1895]): 263–4; “Terbiye”, Maârif 189 (1311 [1895]): 286–9; “Terbiye”, Maârif 191 (1311 [1895]): 315–16.

⁵⁹ İki Okumuş Hanımlar [Two Literate Women], “Aldığımız bir mektup [A Letter We Have Received]”, İnsâniyet 2 (1300 [1883]): 34.

⁶⁰ “Tahdîs-i nîmet, tâyin-i meslek” [Thanksgiving for Blessings, Choosing a Vocation], HMG 1 (1313 [1895]): 2.

⁶¹ “Âile”, 3–4.

⁶² “İdâre-i beytiyye hakkında bir iki söz [A Few Words on Household Management]”, HMG 9 (1313 [1895]): 1; “Kadının vezâifi” [Woman’s Duties], Âile 2 (1297 [1880]): 20; and “Kızların tahsîli hakkında bir mütâlaa 2 [An Opinion on Girls’ Education 2]”, HMG 21 (1313 [1895]): 2.

⁶³ “Kızların tahsîli hakkında 2”, 2; “Kızların tahsîli hakkında bir mütâlaa 3” [An Opinion on Girls’ Education 3], HMG 22 (1313 [1895]): 2.

⁶⁴ “Ev idâresi” [Household Management], Âile 1 (1297 [1880]): 7–8; Fatma Rasiha, “Hanımlarımız ve ev idaresi” [Ladies and Household Management], HMG 6 (1313 [1895]): 5; “İdâre-i beytiyye”, 1–2; Naime, “Hüsn-i idâre” [Efficient House Management], HMG 24 (1313 [1895]): 4; and “Umûr-ı beytiyye: İntizam ve idâre” [Household Chores: Order And Management], Parça bohçası 1 (1305 [1889/1990]): 3–6.

⁶⁵ “Ev idâresi”, 7.

⁶⁶ “İdâre-i beytiyye”, 2.

⁶⁷ Zeynep Sünbül [On Women’s Reading and Writing], 5.

⁶⁸ Fatma Rasiha, “Hanımlarımız”, 5.

⁶⁹ “Ev idâresi”, 9.

⁷⁰ “Âile”, 4.

⁷¹ “Tahdis-i nîmet”, 2.

⁷² Zeynep Sünbül [On Women’s Reading and Writing], 2.

⁷³ “Kadın [The Woman]”, Âile, 2 (1297 [1880]): 18.

⁷⁴ “Kızların tahsîli hakkında bir mütâlaa 4 [An Opinion on Girls’ Education 4]”, HMG 23 (1313 [1895]): 1–2.

⁷⁵ Mahmud Celaleddin, “Coğrafya [konusunda] bir zevç ile zevce beyninde mükâleme [A Conversation Between a Husband and a Wife on Geography]”, İnsâniyet, 1 (1300 [1882]), 19.

⁷⁶ Günaydın, Kadınlık daima bir muamma: Osmanlı kadın yazarların romanlarında modernleşme [Womanhood is an Everlasting Mystery: Modernization in the Novels of Ottoman Woman Writers] (İstanbul: Metis, 2017), 38.

⁷⁷ Akcasu, “Letters to the Author: Late-Ottoman Debates About Equality Between the Sexes”, The SOAS Journal of Postgraduate Research 9 (2015–16): 68–72.

⁷⁸ Somel, “Kızların eğitimi”, 236.

⁷⁹ Somel, The Modernization of Public Education in the Ottoman Empire, 1839–1908: Islamization, Autocracy, and Discipline (Leiden: Brill, 2001), 12–13.

⁸⁰ Ibid., 5.

⁸¹ James C. Albisetti, Joyce Goodman, and Rebecca Rogers, “Girls’ Secondary Education in the Western World: A Historical Introduction”, in Girls’ Secondary Education in the Western World, ed. Albisetti, Goodman, and Rogers (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2010), 3–5.

⁸² Ibid., 4.

Additional information

Notes on contributors

Badegül Eren Aydınlık

Badegül Eren Aydınlık graduated from the Department of English Language Teaching at Middle East Technical University in Ankara in 2009. She finished her MA in the Curriculum and Instruction programme in the Department of Educational Sciences at Marmara University in Istanbul with a thesis entitled “Girls’ Education in the Modern Era of the Ottomans: Girls’ Rüşdiyye Schools and Their Curriculum (1859–1908)” in 2018. She is currently a teacher in a public school in Istanbul.

Seyfi Kenan

Seyfi Kenan is currently full-time professor in the Curriculum and Instruction programme in the Department of Educational Sciences at Marmara University in Istanbul. He uses interdisciplinary methods with a concentration on the history of comparative intellectual thought, educational sciences and philosophy. He has carried out, as a research coordinator, a number of researches for a variety of projects at Columbia University in the City of New York (1996–2003).