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ABSTRACT
Through the cases of Taiwan, Singapore and Hong Kong, this article explores the status of history of education under different postcolonial conditions. It demonstrates that factors such as lingering imperial influences and their tensions with anti-colonial forces, the extent of the cultural hybridity of colonial and post-colonial elites, the identities that emerged amid decolonisation and political developments after power transfer have ramifications for matters such as who researches the educational pasts of ex-dependencies, for whom and what the studies are conducted, which historical periods are being focused on, and in which languages and venues the research products are published. Findings from this article also hints that factors such as the authoritarian conditions after power transfer and prolonged colonisation by non-western powers are likely to hinder a postcolonial intellectual field from producing historiographies publishable in the western academic world.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).
Notes
1 This definition of colonial rule is adapted from Jurgen Osterhammel, Colonialism: A Theoretical Overview (Princeton, NJ: Markus Wiener, 1997), 16–17.
2 Huang Ying-Chee, Quribenhua, Zaizhongguohua: Zhanhou Taiwan Wenhua Chongjian, 1945–1947 [Uprooting Japan, reimplanting China: cultural reconstruction in post-war Taiwan, 1945–1947] (Taipei: Maitian Chubanshe, 1999).
3 Ting-Hong Wong, ‘Education and National Colonialism in Postwar Taiwan: The Paradoxical Use of Private Schools to Extend State Power, 1944–1966’, History of Education Quarterly 60, no. 2 (2020): 156–84.
4 Peng Ming-fei, Taiwanshixue de Zhongguo Chanjie [Taiwan historical studies under China’s entanglement] (Taipei: Maitian Chubanshe, 2002), 154–5.
5 Wu Wen-Xing, ‘Jinwushinian guanyu rezhishiqi zhi lishiyanjiu yu rencaipeiyu (1945–2000): yi lishiyanjusuo weizhongxin’ [Training scholars researching the historical period of Japanese rule in the past fifty years (1950–2000): a study of graduate programmes of history in Taiwan], Taiwanshi Yanjiu [Taiwan Historical Research] 8, no. 1 (June 2001): 163–78.
6 Peng, Taiwanshixue de Zhongguo Chanjie, 154–5.
7 Ting-Hong Wong, Hegemonies Compared: State Formation and Chinese School Politics in Post-War Singapore and Hong Kong (New York: Routledge, 2002), especially chapter 5.
8 Chan Heng Chee, Singapore: The Politics of Survival (Singapore: Oxford University Press, 1971).
9 Ting-Hong Wong, ‘Comparing State Hegemonies: Chinese Universities in Postwar Singapore and Hong Kong’, British Journal of Sociology of Education 28, no. 2 (2005): 199–218.
10 Albert Lau, ‘Nation-Building and the Singapore Story: Some Issues in the Study of Contemporary Singapore History’, in Nation-Building: Five Southeast Asian Histories, ed. Wang Gungwu (Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asia Studies, 2005), 224.
11 Ibid, 225.
12 Ibid.; Loh Kah Seng, ‘Within the Singapore Story: The Use and Narrative of History in Singapore’, Crossroads: An Interdisciplinary Journal of Southeast Asia Studies 12, no. 2 (1998): 1–21.
13 Loh Kah Seng, ‘Encounters at the Gates’, in The Makers and Keepers of Singapore History, ed. Loh Kah Seng and Liew Kai Khium (Singapore: Singapore Heritage Society, 2010), 3–27.
14 It is arguable that the ties between the academic fields of Hong Kong and the West were in fact strengthened because of power transfer, because, with the shadow of China looming large, academics in Hong Kong clung more tightly to the western academic world for self-protection.
15 Wong, Hegemonies Compared; Wong, ‘Comparing State Hegemonies’.
16 John M. Carroll, A Concise History of Hong Kong (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2007), 167–70.
17 Wong Wang-Chi, Lishi de Chenzhong: Cong Xianggang Kan Zhongguodalu de Xianggangshi Lunshu [The heaviness of history: Hong Kong’s historical narrative from mainland China’s point of view] (Hong Kong: Oxford University Press, 2000), 7–46.
18 Only four (less than 4%) of the 109 Taiwan items in the database are co-authored; the figures for Singapore and Hong Kong are three (7%) of 44 and six (9%) of 63, respectively.
19 It is noteworthy that the best known title on Taiwanese educational history in the Anglophone world – Japanese Colonial Education in Taiwan, 1895–1945, published by Harvard University Press – was written by E. Patricia Tsurumi, an outsider based in Canada, in 1977, when Taiwan was still under martial law.
20 See, for example, Hsu Pei-hsien, Zhimindi Taiwan de Jindai Xuexiao [Modern schools in colonial Taiwan] (Taipei, Taiwan: Yuanliu chubanshe, 2005).
21 Li Kai-yang, Rizhishiqi Taiwan de Jiaoyu Caizheng: yi Chudengjiaoyufei wei Tantaozhongxin [Education finance in Japanese Taiwan: a case study on elementary schooling] (Taipei: Academia Historica, 2012).
22 Wang Yao-te, ‘Rizhishiqi tainan gaodeng gongyexuexiao sheli zhi yanjiu’ [Founding of Tainan Technical College during the Japanese colonial era], Taiwanshi Yanjiu [Taiwan Historical Research] 18, no. 2 (June 2011): 52–95; Yeh Pi-ling, ‘Taibei diguodaxue gongxuebu zhi chuangjian’ [The founding of the Engineering Faculty, Taihoku Imperial University] Guoshiguan Guankan [Bulletin of Academia Historica] 52 (June 2017): 73–124; Zheng Li-ling, ‘Rizhishiqi taiwanren de gongyejiaoyu (1912–1925): yi taiwan zongdufu gongye jiangxisuo weili’ [Taiwanese’s industrial education under Japanese rule, 1912–1925: Industrial Institute of Governor-General of Taiwan], Taiwan Fengwu [Taiwan Folkways] 58, no. 2 (June 2008): 95–134.
23 Wu Mi-cha, ‘Zhimindi chuxianle daxue!’ [A university was founded in a colony!], in Diguo de Xuexiao, Diyue de Xuexiao [Schools of the empire, schools of localities], ed. Hsu Pei-xian (Taipei: Taida chubanzhongxin, 2020), 203–32.
24 See, for instance, Chao Wan-yao, ‘Shiluo de daodeshijie: ribenzhimintongzhishiqi Taiwan gongxuexiao xiushen jiaoyu zhi yanjiu’ [A lost moral world: ethics education in Taiwan under Japanese colonial rule], Taiwanshi Yanjiu 8, no. 2 (December 2001): 1–63; Chao Wan-yao, ‘Shixuejiaoyu, xiangtuai yu guojiarentong: rizhishiqi Taiwan gongxuexiao disanqi guoyu jiaokeshu de fenxi’ [Education and national identity in colonial Taiwan: the case of ‘national language’ textbooks, 1923–1937], Taiwanshi Yanjiu 4, no. 2 (December 1997): 7–55.
25 Chen Pei-feng, Tonghua zhi Tongchuangyimeng: Rizhishiqi Taiwan de Yuyanzhengce, Jindaihua yu Rentong [The different intentions behind the semblance of ‘douka’: the language policy, modernisation and identity in Taiwan in the Japan-ruling period], (Taipei: maitian chuban, 2006); E. Patricia Tsurumi, ‘Education and Assimilation in Taiwan under Japanese Rule, 1895–1945’, Modern Asian Studies 13, no. 4 (1979): 617–41.
26 He I-lin, ‘Huangminhua qijian zhi xuexiaojiaoyu’ [School education under the Kominka Movement], Taiwan Fengwu 36, no. 4 (1986): 47–88.
27 Fan Yan-qiu, ‘Diguozhengzhi yu yixue: riben zhanshi zongdongyuanxia de taibei diguodaxue yixuebu’ [Imperial politics and medical science: The Medical School of Taihoku Imperial University during total mobilisation for war], Shida Taiwanshi Xuebao [Bulletin of Taiwan Historical Research] 1 (December 2007): 89–136; Wang Xue-xin, ‘Nanjinzhengcexia de jiminjiaoyu, 1895–1937’ [Education for Taiwanese in South China under the Southern Expansion Policy, 1895–1937], Guoshiguan Xueshu Jikan [Bulletin of Academia Historica] 14 (December 2007): 97–131; Xu Jin-fa, ‘Taibeidiguodaxue de nanfang yanjiu, 1937–1945’ [Southern studies of the Taihoku Imperial University, 1937–1945], Taiwan Fengwu 49, no. 3 (1999): 19–59; Zheng Li-ling, ‘Taibeidiguodaxue yu hainandao’ [Taihoku Imperial University and Hainan Island], Taiwan Fengwu 49, no. 4 (1999): 19–59.
28 Hsu Hsueh-chi, ‘Rizhishiqi taiwanren de haiwaihuodong: zai manzhou de taiwan yisheng’ [Activities of overseas Taiwanese during Japanese colonisation: Taiwanese physicians in Manchuria], Taiwanshi Yanjiu 11, no. 2 (December 2004): 1–75; Hsu Hsueh-chi, ‘Zai manzhouguo de taiwanren gaodengguan: yi datongxueyuan de biyesheng weili’ [Taiwanese senior officials in Manchukuo: the case of graduates from Tatung Academy], Taiwanshi Yanjiu 19, no. 3 (September 2012): 95–150.
29 Jin Jung-won, ‘Fangyan diguo, sijerdong: zai chaoxian xueyi de taiwanren’ [Seizing opportunities in the empire: Taiwanese medical students in colonial Korea], Taiwanshi Yanjiu 19, no. 1 (March 2012): 87–140.
30 Hsu Hsueh-chi, ‘Dongya tongwen shuyuandaxue de taiwan xuesheng (1900–1945)’ [Taiwanese students of Toa Dobun Gakuin University, 1900–1945], Taiwanshi Yanjiu 25, no. 1 (March 2018): 137–82.
31 Chen Tsui-Lien, ‘Dazhengminzhu yu Taiwan liurixuesheng’ [Taisho democracy and Taiwanese overseas students in Japan], Shida Taiwanshi Xuebao 6 (December 2013): 53–100; Ho I-lin, ‘Zhanhouchuqi Taiwan liurixuesheng de zuoqingyanlun ji dongxiang’ [Left-wing views and political sentiments of Taiwanese students in immediate post-war Japan], Taiwanshi Yanjiu 19, no. 2 (June 2012): 151–92.
32 See, for instance, Chao Wan-yao, ‘Cong bijiaoguandian kan taiwan yu hanguo de huangminhua yundong, 1937–1945’ [Comparing the Kominka Movements in Taiwan and Japan, 1937–1945], in Taiwanshi Lunwen Jingxuan [Taiwan history: an anthology], ed. Zhang Yan-hsien, Li Xiao-feng and Dai Bao-cun (Taipei: Yushanshe, 1996), 161–201; Chao Wan-yao, ‘Lishi de tonghe yu jiango: riben diguoquannei taiwan, chaoxian he manzhou de guoshijiaoyu’ [The integration and construction of history: national history education in Taiwan, Korea and Manchuria under Japanese imperial rule], Taiwanshi Yanjiu 10, no. 1 (June 2003): 33–84; Yeh Pi-ling, ‘Taibei diguodaxue yu jingcheng diguodaxue shixueke zhi bijiao’ [Comparison of history courses offered at Taihoku Imperial University and Kejyo Imperial University] Taiwanshi Yanjiu 16, no. 3 (September 2009): 87–132; Zheng Li-ling, ‘Riben zhimindi gaodengjiaoyuzhengce de zhuanzhe yu fazhan: yi jingcheng diguodaxue yu taibei diguodaxue de sheli weili’ [The twists and developments of Japan’s higher education policies in colonies: the founding of Keijo Imperial University in Korea and Taihoku Imperial University in Taiwan], Taiwan Fengwu 51, no. 2 (2001): 87–137.
33 Chen Tsui-lien, ‘Quzhimin yu zaizhimin de duikang: yi yijiusiliunian tairen nuhua lunzhan wei jiaodian’ [Decolonisation vs. recolonisation: the debate over ‘tai-jen nu-hua’ of 1946 in Taiwan], Taiwanshi Yanjiu 9, no. 2 (December 2002): 145–201.
34 Chen Tsui-lien, ‘Zhanhou taiwanjingying de chongjing yu duncuo: yanping xueyuan chuangli shimo’ [Vision and frustration of post-Second World War Taiwanese intellectuals: the case of Yan-ping College], Taiwanshi Yanjiu 13, no. 2 (December 2006): 123–67.
35 Chen Tsui-lien anf Li Kai-yang, Siliushijian yu Taiwandaxue [The April Sixth Incident and the National Taiwan University] (Taipei: National Taiwan University Library, 2017).
36 In late February 1947, Taiwan people’s accumulated frustrations with the KMT’s misrule erupted into armed islanders taking over the island. The uprising was bloodily suppressed by Chiang Kai-shek. See Ou Su-ying, ‘Zhanhouchuqi Taiwan zhongdengxuexiao zhi xuefeng yu xunyu’ [Academic atmosphere and discipline in secondary schools in early post-war Taiwan], Guoshiguan Xueshujikan 2 (December 2002): 1–41.
37 Lee Tong-hwa, ‘Guangfuchuqi taida wenxueyuan de zhuanzhe yu dianji: fussinian xiaozhang shiqi’ [Transition and formation: the Arts College of the National University of Taiwan under the Presidency of Fu Ssu-nien, 1948–1950], in Guangfuchuqi Taida Xiaoshi Yanjiu, 1945–1950 [History of the National Taiwan University in the early retrocession period, 1945–1950], ed. Lee Tong-hwa (Taipei: Taida chubanzhongxin, 2014), 135–65; Ou Su-ying, ‘Kongxian zhege daxue yu yuzhou de jingshen: tan fusinian yu Taiwandaxue shizi zhi gaixian’ [To contribute this university to the universe: on Fu Ssu-nian and the improvement of the National Taiwan University’s teaching staff], Guoshiguan Xueshu Jikan 12 (2007): 205–44.
38 Zhang Peng-yuan, ‘Cong taiwan kan zhongmei jinsanshinian zhi xueshujiaoliu’ [Examining U.S.–Taiwan educational exchanges in the past thirty years from Taiwan], Hanxue Yanjiu [Chinese Studies] 2, no. 1 (1984): 23–56; Zhao Qi-na, ‘Guancha meiguo: taiwan jingying bixia de meiguo xingxiang yu jiaoyu jiaohuanjihua, 1950–1970’ [Observing America: American images in Taiwan elites’ writings and American educational exchange programmes, 1950–1970], Taida Lishi Xuebao [Historical Inquiry] 48 (December, 2011): 97–163; Zhao Qi-na, ‘Meiguozhengfu zai taiwan de jiaoyu yu wenhua jiaoliuhuodong, 1951–1970’ [The US Government’s cultural and educational exchange activities in Taiwan, 1951–1970], Oumei Yanjiu [Euramerica] 31, no. 1 (March 2001): 79–127.
39 See, for instance, Guan Mei-rong and Wang Wen-long, ‘Jiangzhongzheng jiaoyuguan yu yijiuwuling niandai taiwanjiaoyu’ [Educational thought of Chiang Kai-shek and Taiwan education in the 1950s], in Chongqiluzao: Jiangzhongzheng yu Yijiuwuling niandao de Taiwan [Making a fresh start: Chiang Kai-shek and Taiwan in the 1950s] (Taipei: National Chiang Kai-shek Memorial Hall, 2013), 191–229.
40 See, for instance, Yang Tsui-hwa, ‘Hushi dui Taiwan kexue fazhan de tuidong: xueshuduli mengxiang de yanxu [Hu Shih and the promotion of scientific development in Taiwan: keeping the ideal of academic independence alive], Hanxue Yanjiu 20, no. 2 (December 2002): 327–52; Yang Tsui-hwa, ‘Taiwan kejizhengce de xiandao: Wudayou yu kedaohui’ [Planning science and technology in Taiwan: Wu Ta-you and the Commission for Science Development], Taiwanshi Yanjiu 10, no. 2 (December 2003): 67–110.
41 Kuo Shih-ching, ‘Ershishiji xiehe junyi zai taiwan’ [Medical surgeons from Peking Union Medical College in Taiwan], Taiwan Yixue Renwen Xuekan [Formosan Journal of Medical Humanities] 15/16 (September 2015): 114–60; Liu Shi-yung and Kuo Shih-ching, ‘Linkesheng, 1897–1969: anshenghuiying de zhongyanyuan yuanshi yu guofangyixueyuan yuanzhang’ [Robert K. S. Lim, 1897–1969: academician of Academia Sinica and chancellor of National Defence Medical Center in a Silent Shadow], Taiwanshi Yanjiu 19, no. 4 (December 2012): 141–205.
42 Loh Kah Seng, ‘Polytechnicians and Technocrats: Sources, Limits, and Possibilities of Student Activism in 1970s Singapore’, Southeast Asian Studies 7, no. 1 (2018): 39–63.
43 For instance, a 20-page article on Singapore Polytechnic from 1950s to the early 1970s dedicates only one page to the post-1965 years: Loh Kah Seng, ‘Rupture and Adaptation: British Technical Expertise to the Singapore Polytechnic and the Transition to a Nation-State’, History of Education 44, no. 5 (2015): 575–94.
44 Teh Liang Soo, ‘Lun xinma zaoqide sishu jiaoyu’ [On early Chinese Sishu education in Singapore and Malaya], Asian Culture 20 (1996): 136–46.
45 Wang Kang Ding, ‘Yijiuyijiunian xinjiapo nanyang huaiqiaozhongxue chuangbanqian nanyanggedi qiaojiao fazhan shikuang tanxi’ [Chinese education in Southeast Asia before the foundation of the Chinese High School in Singapore in 1919], Nanyang Xuebao [Journal of South Seas Society] 57/58 (2006): 23–65; Yeap Chong Leng, ‘Nanyang huaqiaozhongxue de chuangshe: gainian de chansheng yanjin yu xianshi’ [The establishment of the Nanyang Chinese High School], Asian Culture 16 (1992): 125–36.
46 See, for instance, Khe Su Lin, Lixiang yu Xianshi: Nanyangdaxue Xueshenghui Yanjiu, 1956–1964 [Ideal and reality: Student Union of Nanyang University, 1956–1965] (Singapore: Centre for Chinese Language and Culture, Nanyang Technological University, 2006); Zhou Zhaocheng, Yuyan, Zhengzhi yu Guojiahua: Nanyangdaxue yu Xinjiapo Zhengfu Guanxi, 1953–1968 [Language, politics, and nationalisation: the relations between Nanyang University and the Singapore Government, 1953–1968] (Singapore: Centre for Chinese Language and Culture, Nanyang Technological University, 2012).
47 Luo Le-ran, ‘Boyue yu zhuanye: xinjiapo de huawenjiaoyu yu zhongguo daxue jiaoyu de guanlianxing’ [Extensiveness and professionalisation: the relationship between university education in China and Chinese language education in Singapore], Nanyang Xuebao 73 (September 2019): 179–205; Yeap Beng Leng, ‘Chenjiageng chuangban nanyang huaqiao shifanxuexiao shimo’ [Tan Kah Kee and the Nanyang Normal School], Asian Culture 10 (1987): 64–73; Yeap Beng Leng, ‘Chenjiageng ban nanyanghuaqiao shuichanhanghai xuexiao shimo’ [The founding of Nanyang Overseas Chinese Maritime and Navigation School by Tan Kah Kee], Asian Culture 14 (1990): 150–60.
48 Lee Ting Hui, ‘The Anti-Japanese War in China: Support from Chinese Schools in Malaya in 1937–41’, Asian Culture 17 (1993): 140–8; Karen M. Teoh, Schooling Diaspora: Women, Education, and the Overseas Chinese in British Malaya and Singapore, 1850s-1960s (New York: Oxford University Press, 2018); Wong, Hegemonies Compared.
49 Saravanan Gopinathan, Towards a National System of Education in Singapore, 1945–1973 (Singapore: Oxford University Press, 1974); Philip Loh Fook Seng, Seeds of Separatism: Educational Policy in Malaya, 1874–1940 (Kuala Lumpur: Oxford University Press, 1975); H. E. Wilson, Social Engineering in Singapore: Educational Policies and Social Change, 1819–1972 (Singapore: Singapore University Press, 1978).
50 Kevin Blackburn and Pauline Fong Lai Leong, ‘Methodist Education and the Social Status of the Straits Chinese in Colonial Singapore (1886–1914)’, Paedagogica Historica 35, no. 2 (1999): 333–57.
51 Janice N. Brownfoot, ‘Sisters under the Skin: Imperialism and the Emancipation of Women in Malaya, c.1891–1941’, in Making Imperial Mentalities: Socialisation and British Imperialism, ed. J. A. Mangan (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1990), 46–73.
52 Wong, Hegemonies Compared; Wong, ‘Comparing State Hegemonies’; Ting-Hong Wong, ‘Institutionally Incorporated, Symbolically un-Remade: State Reform of Chinese Schools in Postwar Singapore’, British Journal of Sociology of Education 27, no. 5 (2006): 633–50; Ting-Hong Wong, ‘Reappraising the Pedagogic Device’s Evaluative Rules: State-Reformed Examinations of Chinese Middle Schools in Singapore,’ British Journal of Sociology of Education 38, no. 3 (2017): 364–83.
53 Huang Jianli, ‘The Young Pathfinders: Portrayal of Student Political Activism’, in Path Not Taken: Political Pluralism in Post-War Singapore, ed. Michael D. Barr and Carl A. Trocki (Singapore: Singapore University Press, 2008), 188–205; Loh Kah Seng, The University Socialist Club and the Contest for Malaya: Tangled Strands of Modernity (Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 2012); Yeo Kim Wah, ‘Student Politics in University of Malaya, 1949–51’, Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 23, no. 2 (1992): 346–80; Yeo Kim Wah, ‘Joining the Communist Underground: The Conversion of English-Educated Radicals to Communism in Singapore, June 1948–January 1951’, Journal of Malaysian Branch of Royal Asiatic Society 67, part 1 (1994): 29–59.
54 Kevin Blackburn, Education, Industrialisation, and the End of Empire in Singapore (New York: Routledge, 2017).
55 Teoh, Schooling Diaspora.
56 The volume by Anthony Sweeting, who is Welsh, on post-war Hong Kong education is a case in point. Many policies of the British in early post-war Hong Kong were responsive to the sentiments and moves of the Chinese residents. Relying predominantly on English sources, however, Sweeting’s portrayal of Hong Kong’s education politics is far less nuanced than those using both English and Chinese materials extensively. See Anthony Sweeting, A Phoenix Transformed: The Reconstruction of Education in Post-War Hong Kong (Hong Kong: Oxford University Press, 1993).
57 Peter Cunich, ‘Preface’, in An Impossible Dream: Hong Kong University from Foundation to Re-Establishment,1910–1950, ed. Chan Lau Kit-Ching and Peter Cunich (New York: Oxford University Press, 2002), x–xi.
58 Cunich’s book-launch speech for his A History of the University of the Hong Kong, Vol. I, 1911–1945 (Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press, 2012), https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AnfXtoiaiSs (accessed January 12, 2022).
59 Stephen Evans, ‘The Introduction of English-Language Education in Early Colonial Hong Kong’, History of Education 37, no. 3 (2008): 383–408; Anthony Sweeting and Edward Vickers, ‘Language and the History of Colonial Education: The Case of Hong Kong’, Modern Asian Studies 41, no. 1 (2007): 1–40.
60 Peter Cunich, ‘Godliness and Good Learning: The British Missionary Societies and HKU’, in Kit-Ching and Cunich, An Impossible Dream, 39–64.
61 Bert Becker, ‘The “German Factor” in the Founding of the University of Hong Kong’, in Kit-Ching and Cunich, An Impossible Dream, 23–37.
62 C. Mary Turnbull, ‘The Malayan Connection’, in Kit-Ching and Cunich, An Impossible Dream, 99–118.
63 Liu Shuyong, ‘Shijiushiji xianggang xishixuexiao lishipingjia’ [Western-style schools in nineteenth-century Hong Kong: an appraisal], Lishi Yanjiu [Study of History] 202 (December 1989): 38–48.
64 He Lifang and Fang Jun, ‘Laijixi yu zaoqi xianggang zhongwenjiaoyu de fazhan’ [Lai Ji-xi and the development of Chinese education in early twentieth-century Hong Kong], Beijing Shifandaxue Xuebao, Shehuikexueban [Journal of Beijing Normal University (Social Sciences)] 236 (2012): 38–45.
65 Ding Bangping, ‘Lun zhanhou xianggangjiaoyu de fazhan yu gaige’ [Development and reform of education in post-war Hong Kong], Bijiaojiaoyu Yanjiu [Comparative Education Research] 4 (1997): 1–5; Zou Weixin, ‘Zhanhouchuqi xianggang jiaoyuweiji ji gangyingzhengfu duice, 1945–1955’ [Education crisis and the British Hong Kong Government’s counter-measures in the early post-war period], Mudanjiang Shifanxueyuan Xuebao, Zhesheban [Journal of Mudanjiang Normal University (Philosophy and Social Sciences)] 135 (2006): 71–3.
66 Zhang Yang, ‘Yazhoujijinhui: xianggang zhongwendaxue chuangjian beihoude meiguo tuishou’ [The Asia Foundation: the US and the establishment of the Chinese University of Hong Kong], Dangdai Zhongguo Yanjiu [Contemporary China History Studies] 22, no. 2 (March 2015): 91–102.
67 Only two pieces by China outsiders have used archival materials: Cao Bihong, ‘Rijushiqi de xianggang zhiminjiaoyu’ [Colonial education in Japanese-occupied Hong Kong], Kangri Zhanzheng Yanjiu [Research on the anti-Japanese War] 1 (2006), 64–86; Zhang, ‘Yazhou jijinhui’. The former, on Hong Kong education under Japanese rule, quotes (perfunctorily) classified government files left behind by the KMT when they fled to Taiwan, now deposited in the Second Historical Archives in Nanjing, China. The latter, on the Asia Foundation of the US and the Chinese University of Hong Kong, uses materials from the Asia Foundation Records housed in the Hoover Institute Archives of Stanford University.
68 Cao, ‘Rijushiqi de xianggang zhiminjiaoyu’.
69 This volume was published by Ling Kee Publishing Company, a publisher of textbooks for primary and secondary schools in Hong Kong in 2008, and then in 2010 by the Hunan People’s Press in China: Fang Jun and Xiong Xianjun, Xianggang Jiaoyu Tongshi [A general history of Hong Kong education] (Hong Kong: Ling Kee Publishing Company, 2008).
70 Cheng Meibao, ‘Gengzipeikuan yu xianggangdaxue de zhongwenjiaoyu’ [The Boxer Indemnity and the education of Chinese culture in Hong Kong University], Zhongshandaxue Xuebao (Shehui Kexue) [Journal of Zhongshan University (Social Sciences)] 6 (1998): 60–73.
71 Grace Ai-Ling Chou, ‘Cultural Education as Containment of Communism: The Ambivalent Position of American NGOs in Hong Kong in the 1950s’, Journal of Cold War Studies 12, no. 2 (2010): 3–28.
72 Anita Kit-wa Chan, ‘From “Civilizing the Young” to a “Dead-End Job”: Gender, Teaching, and the Politics of Colonial Rule in Hong Kong (1841–1970)’, History of Education 41, no. 4 (2012): 495–514.
73 Ting-Hong Wong, ‘Crossing the Binary Line: The Founding of the Polytechnic in Colonial Hong Kong’, History of Education 43, no. 4 (2014): 524–41.
74 Wong, Hegemonies Compared; Ting-Hong Wong, ‘The Unintended Hegemonic Effects of a Limited Concession: Institutional Incorporation of Chinese Schools in Postwar Hong Kong,’ British Journal of Sociology of Education 33, no. 4 (2012): 587–606; Ting-Hong Wong, ‘Social Foundations of Public–Private Partnerships in Education: The Historical Cases of Postwar Singapore and Hong Kong’, History of Education 44, no. 2 (2015): 207–24.
75 Ting-Hong Wong, ‘Colonial State Entrapped: The Problem of Unregistered Schools in Hong Kong in the 1950s and 1960s’, Journal of Historical Sociology 24, no. 3 (2011): 297–320.
76 Lu Hongji, Zuokan Yunqishi: Yiben Xianggangren de Jiaoxieshi [A people’s history of the Hong Kong Professional Teachers’ Union], vol. 3 (Hong Kong: City University Press, 2016).
77 Ng Lun Ngai-ha, ‘Consolidation of the Government Administration and Supervision of Schools in Hong Kong’, Journal of the Chinese University of Hong Kong 4, no. 1 (1977): 159–81; Ng Lun Ngai-ha, Interactions of East and West: Development of Public Education in Early Hong Kong (Hong Kong: Chinese University Press, 1984).
78 Hung-Kay Bernard Luk, ‘Chinese Culture in the Hong Kong Curriculum: Heritage and Colonialism’, Comparative Education Review 35, no. 4 (1991): 650–68; Wong, Hegemonies Compared.
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Ting-Hong Wong
Ting-Hong Wong is a Research Fellow in the Sociology Institute of Academia Sinica, Taiwan. He studies the impacts of imperialism and colonialism on education in Hong Kong, Singapore and Taiwan. His publications appear in journals such as the British Journal of Sociology of Education, Comparative Education Review, History of Education and History of Education Quarterly. He spent a year in 2022 in Washington, DC, to research the effects of American assistance on education in post-Second World War Taiwan.