https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0357-4013
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ABSTRACT
This paper discusses the impact of East Asian philosophical ideas on the origins and development of martial arts. The article argues that the ideas of Daoist philosophy were developed into ‘soft styles’ or ‘internal schools’ that are based on the doctrine of ‘wuwei’ (action through non-action, effortless action) which follows the path of Yin. These styles are in opposition to ‘external’ or ‘hard styles’ of martial arts that follow the path of Yang. Daoist philosophy of ‘ziran’ (naturalness, spontaneity) influenced ‘animal’ or ‘imitation styles’ and the paradigm of natural, unplanned, and unforced combat movements. The influence of Buddhism on martial arts is found in techniques of mental tranquillity training for the extreme conditions of combat. The work also shows the significance of Confucianism for the formation of a code of honor for warriors, which includes the ethics of duty and respect.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.
Notes
1. There is a story of the meeting between legendary guard Yin Xi and Laozi, recorded in Daoist work Huahujing (Hua Hu Ching). It exemplifies Laozi’s philosophy, putative founder of Daoism, which centers on the idea that the weak overcomes the strong. ‘Yin Xi said: “May I please ask the venerable master’s name and appellation?” Laozi stuck out his long tongue and showed it to him. “All the teeth in my mouth have already fallen out”, he explained, “only the tongue is still left.” Yin Xi understood. “Old Rimless! Lao Dan! There are thirty-six teeth in the mouth, hard and strong like frost. Now all the teeth have fallen out and only the tongue is left. Thus I know that the soft can control the hard and the weak can overcome the strong.”’ (Kohn Citation1996, 211).
2. The theoretical distinction between ‘Neijia’ (internal) and ‘Waijia’ (external) martial arts styles was proposed in the 17th century by Chinese scholar and reformer Huang Zongxi in his book Epitaph for Wang Zhengnan (Wang Citation2012, 12). Modern research show that nowadays it is not so simple to classify the immense variety of existing ‘martial activities’ (Shou-Yu and Jwing-Ming Citation2002, 6; Ryan Citation2008, 528–529; Martínková and Parry Citation2016). However, traditionally, Taijiquan, Xingyiquan, and Baguazhang are considered as three major ‘Neijia’ schools that focus on internal strength (‘neigong’ 內功) cultivated in the form of energy qi 氣 (Shengli Citation2006, 1; Ng Citation2016). Examples of ‘hard styles’ in China are Yong Chun, Cai Li Fo, Hong Jia, Shaolin Temple boxing and, in Japan, karate and taekwondo (Montaigue Citation1995, 4).
4. Some researchers trace origin of jujitsu styles back to the martial arts of the Nara Period (from 650 to 793 A.D.) or earlier (Musser and Lang Citation1999, 13–23).
5. https://web.archive.org/web/20160304042817/http://www.kungfu-taichi.com/servlet/kungfoo/Action/Resource/ResourceKey/1489
6. In Japanese language, the word ‘Budō’ (武道) refers to any modern Japanese martial arts and it consists of bu (武:ぶ), meaning ‘war’ or ‘martial’ and dō (道:どう), meaning ‘way’ or ‘path’ (equivalent to dào in Chinese).
7. https://blog.buddhagroove.com/zen-story-mind-over-matter/
8. In ‘Bunbu Ryodo’ (文武両道) the first kanji 文, bun literally means ‘letter’ or ‘writing’. The second kanji 武, bu means ‘military’. The third kanji 両, ryo means ‘both’ and the last 道, do means ‘road’ or ‘path’. https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/文武両道