From the sea to outer space: The command of space as the foundation of spacepower theory

ABSTRACT

Colin Gray once lamented the absence of a ‘Mahan for the final frontier’ and spacepower theory in strategic studies. This article proposes the command of space as the fundamental concept of spacepower theory, and that Mahan himself has much to offer in the endeavour of spacepower theory-making than has hitherto been realised. The theory is advanced by tempering versions of the ‘command of space’, stressing its educational intent, and explaining the nuanced sub-concepts of space control and denial through understanding some precedents set by seapower theory. In the process, aspects of Mahanian and Corbettian seapower theory are unified.

KEYWORDS:

• Space warfare
• spacepower
• military strategy
• strategic theory
• seapower

Acknowledgements

The author would like to thank Professor Geoffrey Till, Dr David Morgan-Owen and Dr Tim Benbow (Defence Studies Department, King’s College London) for comments on early drafts of this article. The author is also grateful to Dr Alistair Shepherd and Dr Kristan Stoddart (Department of International Politics, Aberystwyth University) for their comments and discussion whilst developing the core ideas and arguments.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author.

Notes

¹ Michael Peck, ‘Aircraft carriers in space,’ Interview with Chris Weuve, Foreign Policy, 28 Sep 2012, http://foreignpolicy.com/2012/09/28/aircraft-carriers-in-space/ (accessed 09/09/2016).

² See: Robert C. Harding, Space Policy in Developing Countries (Abingdon: Routledge 2013).

³ For an overview of satellite uses, see: U.K. Ministry of Defence (MoD), The UK Military Space Primer (Shrivenham: Development, Concepts, and Doctrine Centre 2010); Air Command and Staff College Space Research Electives Seminars, AU-18 Space Primer (Montgomery: Air University Press 2009).

⁴ On an overview of antisatellite testing, see: Brian Weeden, ‘Through a Glass, Darkly: Chinese, American, And Russian Anti-satellite Testing in Space,’ (Washington, D.C.: Secure World Foundation 2014).

⁵ The term ‘First Space War’ first appeared in: Peter Anson and Dennis Cummings, ‘The First Space War: The Contribution of Satellites to the Gulf War’, RUSI Journal 136/4 (1991) 45.

⁶ Colin S. Gray, ‘The Influence of Space Power Upon History’, Comparative Strategy, 15/4(1996) 304.

⁷ John E. Hyten, ‘Space Mission Force: Developing Space Warfighters for Tomorrow’, US Air Force, 29 Jun 2016.

⁸ Gray, ‘The Influence,’ 307

⁹ For a survey of seapower and airpower analogies to outer space, see: John B. Sheldon, Reasoning by Strategic Analogy: Classical Strategic Thought and the Foundations of a Theory of Space Power, PhD Thesis, University of Reading, 2005.

¹⁰ For example: Everett C. Dolman, Astropolitik: Classical Geopolitics in the Space Age (Abingdon: Frank Cass 2002); Michael V. Smith, Ten Propositions Regarding Spacepower (Montgomery, A.L.: Air University Press 2002); John J. Klein, Space Warfare: Strategy, Principles, and Policy (Abingdon: Routledge 2006); John B. Sheldon and Colin S. Gray, ‘Theory Ascendant? Spacepower and the Challenge of Strategic Theory’, in Charles D. Lutes et al., (ed.), Toward a Theory of Spacepower: Selected Essays (Washington, DC: National Defense University Press 2011). Note that the digital version of this edited volume does not contain pagination.

¹¹ Colin S. Gray, Modern Strategy (Oxford: Oxford University Press 1999) 17.

¹² Jon Sumida, Inventing Grand Strategy and Teaching Command: The Classic Works of Alfred Thayer Mahan Reconsidered (Washington, DC: Woodrow Wilson Center Press 1997) xv–xviii, 6–7, 44, 67, 69.

¹³ Colin S. Gray, Airpower for Strategic Effect (Montgomery, AL: Air University Press 2012) 10.

¹⁴ Sheldon and Gray, ‘Theory Ascendant?’

¹⁵ Klein, Space Warfare, 3–7, 13, 35.

¹⁶ For example: Klein, Space Warfare, 6–15, 20–32, 87, 131, 163.

¹⁷ Julian Corbett, Principles of Maritime Strategy (Mineola, NY: Dover 2004) 8–14.

¹⁸ Nicolas Peter, ‘The New Space Order: Why Space Power Matters for Europe,’ Space & Defense 4/1 (2010) 58; Harding, Space Policy in Developing, 16–21.

¹⁹ Eligar Sadeh, ‘Introduction: Towards space strategy,’ in Eligar Sadeh, (ed.), Space Strategy in the 21^st Century (Routledge 2013) 2.

²⁰ Ibid., 3.

²¹ Carl von Clausewitz, On War, Michael Howard and Peter Paret, trans., ed. (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press 1984) 76.

²² Sumida, Inventing, xv–xviii, 6–7, 44, 67, 69; Jon Sumida, Decoding Clausewitz: A New Approach to On War (Lawrence: Kansas University Press 2008) 5, 100–101, 119–120, 170; Clausewitz, On War, 156–158; Sumida, Inventing, xv–xviii, 6–7, 44, 67, 69; Corbett, Principles, 1–9; Raoul Castex, Strategic Theories, trans. and ed. Eugenia C. Kiesling (Annapolis, MD:Naval Institute Press 1994) 21–25.

²³ Clausewitz, On War, 141.

²⁴ Harold R. Winton, ‘An Imperfect Jewel: Military Theory and the Military Profession’, Journal of Strategic Studies 34/6 (2011) 874.

²⁵ Clausewitz, On War, 593.

²⁶ Waldman, War, Clausewitz, 42.

²⁷ Clausewitz, On War, 89.

²⁸ Antulio J. Echevarria, Clausewitz and Contemporary War (Oxford: Oxford University Press 2013) 26.

²⁹ Sumida, Decoding, 99, 180.

³⁰ Luttwak argues this throughout his book: Edward N. Luttwak, Strategy: The Logic of War and Peace (London: Harvard University Press 1987).

³¹ Sumida, Decoding, 101.

³² Ibid., 3.

³³ Sumida, Inventing, xv, xviii, 2–7.

³⁴ Mahan, The Influence of Sea Power Upon History 1660–1783 (Boston: Little, Brown 1890) 338–339; Corbett, Principles, 99–100, 103–104, 113–118.

³⁵ George Lawson, ‘The eternal divide? History and International Relations,’ European Journal of International Relations 18/2 (2010) 206.

³⁶ Michael I. Handel, Masters of War: Classical Strategic Thought (London: Frank Cass 2001) 3; Miyamoto Musashi, The Book of Five Rings, Thomas Cleary trans., ed. (London: Shambala 2003) 14, 28; Sun Tzu, The Art of Warfare, trans. and ed. Roger T. Ames (Ballantine 1993) in Caleb Carr, (ed.), The Book of War (New York, NY: Modern Library 2000) 74.

³⁷ Handel, Masters, 7.

³⁸ Clausewitz, On War, 156, 158.

³⁹ Paraphrasing Clausewitz, On War, 87.

⁴⁰ Paul Kennedy, ‘Grand Strategy in War and Peace: Toward a Broader Definition’, in Paul Kennedy, (ed.), Grand Strategies in War and Peace (London: Yale University Press 1991) 5.

⁴¹ Trevor Brown, ‘Space and the Sea: Strategic Considerations for the Commons’ Astropolitics 10/3 (2012) 237.

⁴² Clausewitz, On War, 357, 370.

⁴³ Klein, Space Warfare, 60, 175, note 1. On the control school doctrine, see: David E. Lupton, On Space Warfare (Montgomery, AL: Air University Press 1998) 60–69.

⁴⁴ This dominating vision is prevalent in spacepower texts: Klein, Space Warfare, 60; Smith, Ten Propositions, 74; James Oberg, Space Power Theory (Montgomery, AL: Air University Press 1999) 130; Gray and Sheldon, ‘Theory Ascendant’; Dolman, Astropolitik, 8, 70–75, 130–134.

⁴⁵ On Chinese military space modernisation see: Kevin Pollpeter, ‘Space, the New Domain: Space Operations and Chinese Military Reforms,’ Journal of Strategic Studies, (2016) Published online, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01402390.2016.1219946

⁴⁶ UK Ministry of Defence, ‘UK Air and Space Doctrine’, Joint Doctrine Publication 0–30 (2013) 7–7 - 7–14; US Joint Chiefs of Staff, Joint Publication 3–14: Space Operations (2013) II-8–II-9.

⁴⁷ Clausewitz, On War, 486.

⁴⁸ Ken Booth and Nicholas J. Wheeler, The Security Dilemma: Fear, Cooperation, and Trust in World Politics (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan 2008) 1, 4–5.

⁴⁹ Colin S. Gray, Another Bloody Century: Future Warfare (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson 2005) 308.

⁵⁰ Colin S. Gray, The Navy in the Post-Cold War World (Philadelphia, PA: Pennsylvania University Press 1994) 156–157.

⁵¹ Martin E.B. France, ‘Back to the Future: Space Power Theory and A.T. Mahan’, Space Policy 17 (2000), 237–241.

⁵² Dolman, Astropolitik, 8, 70–75, 130–134.

⁵³ Klein, Space Warfare, 24–28, 51–60. See also: John G. Fox, ‘Some principles of space strategy (or “Corbett in Orbit”),’ Space Policy 17 (2001) 7–11.

⁵⁴ Corbett, Principles, 87.

⁵⁵ Mahan, Influence, 14.

⁵⁶ Geoffrey Till, Seapower: A guide for the 21^st Century (Abingdon: Routledge 2013) 145.

⁵⁷ John R. Hill, Maritime Strategy for Medium Powers (London: Croom Helm 1986) 35.

⁵⁸ Mahan, Influence, 514.

⁵⁹ Howard Kleinberg, ‘On War in Space’, Astropolitics 5/1 (2007) 9–10; Steven Lambakis, On the Edge of Earth: The Future of American Space Power (Lexington, K.Y.: Kentucky University Press 2001) 101; Marc `J. Berkowitz, ‘National Space Policy and National Defense’, in Peter L. Hays and James M. Smith, Alan R. Van Tassel, Guy M. Walsh (ed.), Spacepower for a New Millennium (London: McGraw-Hill 2000) 50–51; Benjamin S. Lambeth, Mastering the Ultimate High Ground: Next Steps in the Military Uses of Space (Washington, DC: RAND, 2003) 99.

⁶⁰ Clausewitz, On War, 595–596.

⁶¹ Corbett, Principles, 14.

⁶² Mahan, Influence, 329.

⁶³ For example: Alan Steinberg, ‘Weapons in Space: The Need to Protect Space Assets’, Astropolitics 10/3 (2012) 248–267; Raymond Duvall and Jonathan Havercroft, ‘Taking sovereignty out of this world: Space weapons and empire of the future’, Review of International Studies 34 (2008) 755–775; Joan Johnson-Freese, Heavenly Ambitions: America’s Quest to Dominate Space (Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press 2009); Matthew Mowthorpe, The Militarization and Weaponization of Space (Lanham: Lexington Books 2004) 3–13; Columba Peoples, ‘Assuming the Inevitable? Overcoming the Inevitability of Outer Space Weaponization and Conflict’, Contemporary Security Policy 29/3 (2008) 502–520; Michael Moore, Twilight War: The Folly of US Space Dominance (Oakland: Independent Institute 2008).

⁶⁴ For example: Karl P. Mueller, ‘Totem and Taboo: Depolarizing the Space Weaponization Debate’, in John M. Logsdon and Gordon Adams, (ed). Space Weapons: Are They Needed? (Washington, DC: Space Policy Institute 2003); Laura Delgado Lopez, ‘Predicting an Arms Race in Space: Problematic Assumptions for Space Arms Control,’ Astropolitics 10/1 (2012) 49–67.

⁶⁵ Corbett, Principles, 170–171.

⁶⁶ Klein, Space Warfare, 20.

⁶⁷ Sheldon, ‘Reasoning,’ 150.

⁶⁸ Mahan, Influence, 14, 53–55, 193, 225–226, 514.

⁶⁹ Corbett, Principles, 167.

⁷⁰ Corbett, Principles, 209.

⁷¹ Ibid.

⁷² Smith, Ten Propositions, 74; Oberg, Space Power, 130; Sheldon and Gray, ‘Theory Ascendant?’

⁷³ Yagyu Munenori, The Book of Family Traditions on the Art of War, trans. ed., Thomas Cleary 1632 in Miyamoto Musashi, The Book of Five Rings, Thomas Cleary trans., ed. (London: Shambala 2003) 117.

⁷⁴ Sumida, Inventing, 7, 24.

Additional information

Funding

The majority of the research for this article was undertaken as part of an Economic and Social Research Council 3+1 PhD scholarship at the Department of International Politics, Aberystwyth University.

Notes on contributors

Bleddyn E. Bowen

Dr Bleddyn E. Bowen is a Lecturer in Defence Studies at the Defence Studies Department, King’s College London. His research focuses on spacepower, strategic theory and the use of space technology in modern warfare.