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Abstract
The article seeks to contribute to the interdisciplinary literature on South–South cooperation (SSC) promoted by Brazil. By delving into both quantitative and qualitative data, the article presents an outlook on the last 20 years of Brazilian SSC projects and addresses the role of some domestic factors in this process. Data analysis reveals that presidential leadership and institutional-bureaucratic factors are important for a more comprehensive understanding of past and present trends. As indicated by the previous literature, Lula’s leadership was an important factor in the spike in SSC initiatives during the later years of his administration. Additionally, one should consider the role of federal institutions and their bureaucracies in sustaining momentum when the leadership driver is either absent or working against SSC, as is the case in the Bolsonaro administration.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author.
Notes
1 Bill 3267/2019, proposed by the Executive branch, which modifies the Brazilian Traffic Code: https://www.camara.leg.br/proposicoesWeb/prop_mostrarintegra;jsessionid=2B10236B30604E62BAC37199BE1BE98D.proposicoesWebExterno2?codteor=1760995&filename=PL+3267/2019
2 Executive Order 9.759/2019, which extinguishes and establishes new guidelines for participatory bodies in the federal government: http://www.planalto.gov.br/ccivil_03/_ato2019-2022/2019/decreto/D9759.htm
3 Folha, Bolsonaro trava Bolsa Família em cidades pobres e fila chega a 1 milhão, https://www1.folha.uol.com.br/mercado/2020/02/bolsonaro-trava-bolsa-familia-em-cidades-pobres-e-fila-chega-a-1-milhao.shtml
4 Executive Order 9.760/2019, which alters the administrative process to impose sanctions on environmental infractions: http://www.planalto.gov.br/ccivil_03/_ato2019-2022/2019/Decreto/D9760.htm
5 The idea of ‘globalism’ was repeatedly mentioned in Foreign Minister Ernesto Araújo’s inaugural speech. Available at http://funag.gov.br/index.php/pt-br/component/content/article?id=2913
6 Translation by the author. Folha, 2019, Araújo chega aos 100 dias de governo questionado por diplomatas e militares, https://www1.folha.uol.com.br/mundo/2019/04/araujo-chega-aos-100-dias-de-governo-questionado-por-diplomatas-e-militares.shtml
7 Translation by the author. J. Bolsonaro, 2019, “Discurso do presidente Jair Bolsonaro na abertura da 74ª Assembleia Geral das Nações Unidas – Nova York, 24 de setembro de 2019,” http://www.itamaraty.gov.br/pt-BR/discursos-artigos-e-entrevistas-categoria/presidente-da-republica-federativa-do-brasil-discursos/20890-discurso-do-presidente-jair-bolsonaro-na-abertura-da-74-assembleia-geral-das-nacoes-unidas-nova-york-24-de-setembro-de-2019
8 Isolated activities are ad-hoc missions or events funded by ABC. The term was coined in order to differentiate those one-time activities from full-fledged projects.
9 The cleaning process involved, for instance, the exclusion of activities that corresponded to missions meant for the negotiation of future projects.
10 Cobradi stands for Brazilian Cooperation for Development. The report is published by the Institute for Economic Applied Research (IPEA) with data from a multiplicity of federal agencies.
11 Interview with UNDP officials on 17 April 2020.
12 Over time, some projects came to be funded by countries of the North, hence creating triangular cooperation initiatives. Likewise, cooperation was grounded on Brazil’s domestic policy expertise and projects were fundamentally based on technical cooperation.
13 Interview with UNDP officials, 17 April 2020.
15 O Globo, 2020, “Com eleição de americano para o BID, Brasil consolida alinhamento com EUA e renuncia à liderança regional,” https://oglobo.globo.com/mundo/com-eleicao-de-americano-para-bid-brasil-consolida-alinhamento-com-eua-renuncia-lideranca-regional-24635446
16 The first project established between ABC and UNDP for the implementation of South–South cooperation dates to 1998. It is known as the 98/004 project document (interview with UNDP officials, 17 April 2020).
17 The division of the world into a geopolitical North and a geopolitical South is fraught with problems. Nonetheless, for the purpose of this article, this terminology will be used following the adoption of ‘South–South cooperation’ as a term by the Brazilian government and the international development community. The geopolitical North hence represents traditional donors with developed economies, in contrast to the geopolitical South with developing and emerging economies.
18 Personal communication.
19 Translation by the author.
20 Estadao, 2013, “Dilma quer agência de comércio para fortalecer balança,” https://economia.estadao.com.br/noticias/geral,dilma-quer-agencia-de-comercio-para-fortalecer-balanca-imp-,1042690
21 Personal communication, 17 April 2020.
22 Translation by the author.
23 Personal communication.
24 Embrapa stands for Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation. It is under the institutional framework of the Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock, and Food Supply.
25 Fiocruz is the abbreviated name for the Oswaldo Cruz Foundation. It is the Ministry of Health’s research and training foundation.
26 The remaining 10% did not have data on the agency of implementation.
27 Field notes, 2019.
28 ABC’s bureaucracy has interesting features, as it combines career diplomats, political appointees who have been at the agency for decades, and consultants hired through the cooperation projects with the UNDP.
30 A training programme on international technical cooperation. The programme was developed and implemented by ABC and ENAP with the support of the German government. See https://repositorio.enap.gov.br/handle/1/1053?mode=full
31 Translated by the author. Quote from O Globo, Cooperação Sul-Sul está na mira do futuro chanceler do Brasil, 16 December 2018, https://oglobo.globo.com/mundo/cooperacao-sul-sul-esta-na-mira-do-futuro-chanceler-do-brasil-23309063
32 Ibid.
33 Translated by the author. MRE, Discurso do ministro Ernesto Araújo durante cerimônia de Posse no Ministério das Relações Exteriores – Brasília, 2 de janeiro de 2019, 03 January 2019, http://www.itamaraty.gov.br/pt-BR/discursos-artigos-e-entrevistas-categoria/ministro-das-relacoes-exteriores-discursos/19907-discurso-do-ministro-ernesto-araujo-durante-cerimonia-de-posse-no-ministerio-das-relacoes-exteriores-brasilia-2-de-janeiro-de-2019
35 Ibid.
36 Ibid.
37 Initiatives include both long-term structural projects and ad hoc activities, such as one-time trainings and events. However, the term excludes all one-time meetings and missions that were exclusively meant for the negotiation of new projects, as well as for their evaluation.
Additional information
Notes on contributors
Michelle Morais de Sá e Silva
Michelle Morais de Sá e Silva is Wick Carry Assistant Professor in International and Area Studies at the University of Oklahoma. She is also Co-Director of the Center for Brazil Studies. Previously, she was Head of Graduate Programs and Professor at Brazil’s National School of Public Administration (Enap). She was also Coordinator General for International Cooperation at Brazil’s Ministry of Human Rights (2011–2014). Before that, she was a UNESCO staff member for six years. She has worked in Angola, Colombia, Mozambique and Russia, besides Brazil. She received her PhD from Columbia University and an MA in development studies from the International Institute of Social Studies in The Hague, The Netherlands. In 2015, she did a year of post-doctoral research at the Carr Center for Human Rights Policy, Harvard Kennedy School of Government. Her research agenda has been mostly focussed on issues of international cooperation for development, public policy, education and human rights.