Hsiao Yao: A Chinese Analog of the Classical Western Idea of Leisure

Abstract

Leisure is recognized as an arena in which an individual deals with fundamental human concerns including living a good life and pursuing happiness. It is therefore not peculiar to Western culture but an interest in most, if not all, cultures and societies. However, leisure researchers have been slow in acknowledging this assumption, especially with respect to the meaning of leisure in non-Western settings. The authors argue that the Chinese concept of hsiao yao is an idea and ideal akin to the Western concept of leisure, especially in its classical sense, i.e., Greek scholé, implying “the cultivation of self” and “freedom from the necessity of being occupied.” The striking concordances between these two concepts suggests that in order to make sense of the values of leisure encountered in diverse cultures, more effort must be put forth on the cross-cultural comparative study of leisure.

Keywords:

• classical meanings of leisure
• hsiao yao
• leisure meaning cross-culturally
• scholé

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Correction Statement

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Notes

1 Traditionally, the development of I Ching has been affiliated with four important figures: Fu Hsi (or Pao Hsi), a legendary prehistoric sage-king who supposedly lived before 3000 BCE, King Wen (1249-1150 BCE), the founder of the Chou dynasty (1111-249 BCE), the Duke Chou, son of King Wen, and Confucius (551-479 BCE), a humanistic philosopher and China's greatest teacher. Fu Hsi is credited with the invention of pa kua (eight trigrams), the symbols on which I Ching is based. King Wen and His son the Duke of Chou are credited with a further refinement of I Ching and the invention of the 64 hexagrams including brief commentaries. Confucius is credited with the thorough Commentaries known as Ten Wings that elaborate upon the symbolism together with the design and structure of I Ching. In recent years, these Commentaries have been ascribed to Confucius's disciples and followers rather than to himself. However, there seems little doubt that these Commentaries eventually became an integral part of I Ching no later than the Warring States (480-222 BCE) era, and all these have come down to us as the final form of I Ching.

2 Chuang Tzu (or Chuang Chou), the ascribed author of Chuang Tzu, lived during the fourth and third centuries BCE, and died around 275 BCE. All we know about him is the few facts recorded by Ssu-Ma Ch’ien (145?-86? BCE) in Shih Chi (The Book of History)(Watson, 1984). According to Ssu-Ma Ch’ien, Chuang Tzu's name was Chou, a native of Meng Hsien (i.e., county), and only known position was as an officer of the Vanish Grove in Meng. Chuang Tzu has been viewed as the most talented figure in the Taoist school as well as the most creative and gifted individual in Chinese literature. A general consensus among Chinese scholars is that Chuang Tzu was the greatest prose master ever to live. Through his talent, Taoism reached its zenith.