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Research Articles

Tailored engagement: Assessing Japan’s strategic culture and its impact on U.S. – China competition

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Pages 388-402 | Published online: 05 Jul 2022
 

Abstract

The concept of “Strategic Culture” has enjoyed a resurgence in the last two decades as a method for understanding the behavior and decision making of potential adversaries. Strategic culture assessment methodologies offer a way to examine the policy choices of states, while accounting for ethnocentric biases. While these assessments have been used widely for analyzing adversaries, they are underutilized in assessing allies. The emergence of great power competition between the U.S. and China will increase pressure on the U.S.-Japan alliance. Increasing the understanding of Japan’s strategic culture will provide the United States insight into ways to engage with Japan to make strategies to compete with China more effective.

Notes

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4 Kerry M. Kartchner, “Weapons of Mass Destruction and the Crucible of Strategic Culture,” Defense Threat Reduction Agency (October 31, 2006), p. 2.

5 Colin S. Gray, Fighting Talk: Forth Maxims on War, Peace and Strategy (USA: Potomac Books, Inc., 2009), p. 25.

6 Jeannie L. Johnson and Matthew T. Berrett, “Cultural Topography: A New Research Tool for Intelligence Analysis,” Studies in Intelligence 55, no. 2 (June 2011) Online: https://www.cia.gov/static/811a5292007dbd5e9a73844c113f257b/Cultural-Topography.pdf

7 Jeffrey L. Lantis, “Strategic Culture: From Clausewitz to Constructivism,” Defense Threat Reduction Agency (October 31, 2006), p. 13.

8 Kartchner, p. 2.

9 Johnson and Berrett, p. 6.

10 Brad Glosserman, Peak Japan (Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press, 2019), p. 7.

11 Masahiro Matsumura, “The Japanese State Identity as a Grand Strategic Imperative,” The Brookings Institute (May 2008), p. 5.

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14 Matsumura, p. 6.

15 Robert N. Bellah, “Japan’s Cultural Identity: Some Reflections on the Work of Watsuji Tetsuro,” The Journal of Asian Studies 24, no 4 (August 1965): 574.

16 Glosserman, p. 8.

17 Shin’ichi, p. 4.

18 Glosserman, p. 8.

19 Warren I. Cohen, East Asia at the Center: Four Thousand Years of Engagement with the World (New York: Columbia University Press, 2000), p. 302.

20 Shin’ichi, p. 2.

21 Matsumura, p. 10.

22 Dan Carlin, “Supernova in the East,” Hardcore History Podcast (2019–2021) Online: https://www.dancarlin.com/hardcore-history-series/.

23 Malcom Gladwell, The Bomber Mafia (New York: Hachette Book Group, 2021), p. 180.

24 Water L. Hixon, The American Experience in World War II: The Atomic Bomb in History and Memory (Routledge: 2002), p. 167.

25 Ibid.

26 Asia for Educators, “Japan’s Modern History: An Outline of the Period,” Columbia University (2020) Online: http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/timelines/japan_modern_timeline.htm (accessed July 5, 2021).

27 Asia for Educators, “Treaty of Mutual Cooperation and Security between the United States of America and Japan (January 19, 1960),” Columbia University (2020) Online: http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/ps/japan/mutual_cooperation_treaty.pdf (accessed July 5, 2021).

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30 Glosserman, p. 18.

31 Carol Gluck, “Top Ten Things to Know About Japan in the Early Twenty-First Century,” Education About Asia 13, no. 3 (Winter 2008): 9.

32 Shin’ichi.

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34 Matsumura, p. 10.

35 Kiichi Aichi, “Japan’s Legacy and Destiny of Change,” Foreign Affairs (October 1969), p. 26.

36 Greg Ip, “As World Turns Inward, Shinzo Abe’s Japan has Turned Outward,” The Wall Street Journal (2 September 2020).

37 Chris Burgess, “Genuine Immigration Reform Still Alien to Japan,” East Asia Forum (15 November 2018) Online: https://www.eastasiaforum.org/2018/11/15/genuine-immigration-still-alien-to-japan/ (accessed July 9, 2021).

38 Aichi, p. 26.

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43 Hagstrom, p. 129.

44 Joji Sakurai, “Quake and Blossoms: Japan’s Reminder of Mortality,” The Boston Globe (March 26, 2011) Online: https://archive.boston.com/news/world/asia/articles/2011/03/26/quake_and_blossoms_japans_reminder_of_mortality/

45 Sam Loule, “Asian Honor and Suicide,” Psychology Today (June 30, 2014). https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/minority-report/201406/asian-honor-and-suicide

46 Hofstede Insights.

47 Ibid.

48 World Economic Forum, “Global Social Mobility Index 2020: Why Economies Benefit from Fixing Inequality,” Reports (January 19, 2020) Online: https://www.weforum.org/reports/global-social-mobility-index-2020-why-economies-benefit-from-fixing-inequality (accessed July 13, 2021).

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51 Johnathan Rice, Behind the Japanese Mask: How to Understand the Japanese Culture and Work Successfully with It (UK: How to Books, LTD, 2004), 57.

52 Linda S. Wojtan, “Rice: It’s More than Food in Japan,” Stanford Program on International and Cross Cultural Education (November 1993) Online: https://spice.fsi.stanford.edu/docs/rice_its_more_than_food_in_japan (accessed July 11, 2021).

53 Rice, p. 58.

54 Susan C. Bauman, In Search of the Japanese Spirit in Talent Education (NJ: Summy Birchard, Inc., 1994), 13.

55 Eika Tai, “Rethinking Culture, National Culture, and Japanese Culture,” Japanese Language and Literature 37, no. 1 (April 2003): 17.

56 Hofstede Insights, “Japan,” Country Comparison Tool. Online: https://www.hofstede-insights.com/country-comparison/japan/ (accessed July 10, 2021).

57 Hofstede Insights.

58 Brad Glosserman, “The Abe Administration and Japanese National Identity: An Updates,” Joint U.S.-Korea Academic Studies, Korea Economic Institute of America (2016), p. 118.

59 Hofstede Insights.

60 Danielle Demetriou, “How the Japanese Are Putting an End to Extreme Work Weeks,” The BBC (January 17, 2020) Online: https://www.bbc.com/worklife/article/20200114-how-the-japanese-are-putting-an-end-to-death-from-overwork (accessed July 14, 2021).

61 Hofstede Insights.

62 Edoardo Campenella, “Overworked in Japan: Why It’s an Epidemic,” Foreign Affairs (October 12, 2016).

63 Frank A. Weil, “The Surprising Wealth and Success of Japan,” The Atlantic (December 2, 2010) Online: https://www.theatlantic.com/business/archive/2010/12/the-surprising-wealth-and-success-of-japan/67302/ (accessed July 14, 2021).

64 Shinzo Abe, “Japan’s Journey from War to Peace and Prosperity,” World Economic Forum (August 15, 2015) Online: https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2015/08/japans-journey-from-war-to-peace-and-prosperity/ (accessed July 14, 2021).

65 Shin’ichi, p. 5.

66 Aichi, p. 22.

67 Bellha, p. 580.

68 Elizabeth Hammer, “Shinto: A Japanese Religion,” Asia Society, Center for Global Education. Online: https://asiasociety.org/education/shinto (accessed July 10, 2021).

69 Bellah, p. 580.

70 Hammer.

71 Hofstede Insights, “Japan,” Country Comparison Tool. Online: https://www.hofstede-insights.com/country-comparison/japan/ (accessed July 10, 2021).

72 Hofstede Insights.

73 Gluck, p. 8.

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75 The Government of Japan, The Constitution of Japan (November 3, 1946) Online: https://japan.kantei.go.jp/constitution_and_government_of_japan/constitution_e.html (accessed July 10, 2021).

76 Jeffrey P. Richter, “Japan’s ‘Reinterpretation’ of Article 9: A Pyrrhic Victory for American Foreign Policy?” Iowa Law Review 101, no. 1223 (2016): 1228.

77 Mark Episkopos, “Ranked for 2021: Top 5 Militaries on Planet Earth,” The National Interest (February 20, 2021) Online: https://nationalinterest.org/blog/buzz/ranked-2021-top-5-militaries-planet-earth-178555 (accessed July 11, 2021).

78 Diego Lopes Da Silva, Nan Titan, and Alexandra Marksteiner, “Trends in World Military Expenditure, 2020,” SIPRI Fact Sheet (April 2021), p. 2.

79 Alexis Dudden, “Two Strategic Cultures, Two Japans,” in Strategic Asia 2016-17: Understanding Strategic Cultures in the Asia Pacific, edited by Michael Wills, Ashley J. Tellis, and Alison Szalwinksi (New York: The National Bureau of Asian Research, 2016), p. 98.

80 Glosserman, p. 117.

81 Dudden, p. 99.

82 Matsumura, p. 15.

83 Brad Glosserman and Scott A. Snyder, The Japan-South Korea Identity Clash (New York: Columbia University Press, 2015), p. 55.

84 Jeffrey Record, “Japan’s Decision for War in 1941: Some Enduring Lessons,” Strategic Studies Institute, U.S. Army War College (February 2009).

85 Glosserman and Snyder, p. 55.

86 June Teufel Dreyer, Middle Kingdom & Empire of the Rising Sun: Sino-Japanese Relations, Past and Present (New York: Oxford University Press, 2016), p. 9.

87 Kent E. Calder, “China and Japan’s Simmering Rivalry,” Foreign Affairs 85, no. 2 (March/April, 2006): 129.

88 Koji Watanabe, “Japanese Perspectives on the Rise of China,” in Rising China: Power and Reassurance, edited by Ron Huisken (ANU Press, 2009), p. 48.

89 Teufel Dreyer, p. 3.

90 Claire Greenstein and Brandon Tensley, “Japan, the United States, and Public Memory,” Foreign Affairs (November 24, 2016).

91 Goerge R. Packard, “The United States-Japan Security Treaty at 50,” Foreign Affairs (March/April 2010).

92 Kristen de Groot, “U.S.-Japan Relations, Past, Present and Future,” Penn Today (April 19, 2021) Online: https://penntoday.upenn.edu/news/us-japan-relations-past-present-and-future (accessed July 15, 2021).

93 Packard.

94 Ibid.

95 Akira Igata and Brad Glosserman, “Japan Is Indispensable Again,” Foreign Affairs (July 15, 2021). Bruce Stokes and Kat Devlin, “View of the U.S. and President Trump,” Pew Research Center (November 12, 2018) Online: https://www.pewresearch.org/global/2018/11/12/views-of-the-u-s-and-president-trump/ (accessed July 16, 2021).

96 Suzanne Basalla, William Berger, and C. Spencer Abbot, “The U.S. Government Response to Japan’s ‘Triple Disaster’,” Joint Forces Quarterly no. 68, 1st Quarter (2013): 27.

97 Koji Tomita, “Japan’s Friendship with the United States Remains Unshakable,” The Hill (March 3, 2021) Online: https://thehill.com/opinion/white-house/542628-japans-friendship-with-the-us-remains-unshakable (accessed July 16, 2021).

98 Hitoshi Tanaka, “Deepening US-Japan Strategic Cooperation on China and the Indo-Pacific,” Japan Center for International Exchange (June 2021), p. 3.

99 Minister Kishi Nobuo, “Defense of Japan,” Japanese Ministry of Defense (2021), p. 1.

100 Yukio Hatoyama, “US-China Rivalry and Japan’s Strategic Role,” The Washington Quarterly (June 17, 2021): 10.

101 Igata, Glosserman.

102 Nobuo, p. 3.

103 Tanaka.

104 Andrew L. Oros, “International and Domestic Challenges to Japan’s Postwar Security Identity: ‘Norm Constructivism’ and Japan’s New ‘Proactive Pacifism’,” The Pacific Review 28, no. 1 (2015): 153.

Additional information

Notes on contributors

Jennifer Bradley

Jennifer Bradley ([email protected]) is a Senior Deterrence Analyst for United States Strategic Command where she is lead analyst for the Asia-Pacific region. Prior to joining Strategic Command, Ms. Bradley was a Deterrence Analyst at the National Institute for Public Policy. Ms. Bradley is currently pursuing her Doctorate in Defense and Strategic Studies from Missouri State University where she earned her Masters of Science in the same discipline in 2007. She received her Bachelor of Science degree in Political Science, Philosophy, and Economics from Eastern Oregon University in 2002. The views in this study are her own and do not represent the views of U.S. Strategic Command, the Department of Defense or the U.S. Government.

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