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ABSTRACT
There is a large volume of African scholarship that contextualises migration in terms of internally-and-externally-motivated movement of people. However, scholarship that considers internal-migration and forced-evictions from their land by the colonial-settler-state in Zimbabwe and the impact of such evictions on the people of Sanyati is limited. This article examines the impact of state-induced-migration of African-peasants from the Rhodesdale-Ranch to the Sanyati-hinterland and the deployment of agricultural-demonstrators by the state to ‘improve’ agriculture following the enactment of the Native Land Husbandry Act (NLHA). The forced-removal, which disregarded nationality and peasant-farmers’ rights-to-land, was followed by unique forms of controlling and managing movement as legitimised by the state. Moreover, this article delineates African-agency and adaptation as the evictees negotiated survival in a new environment where arable-land was not only scarce, but – prior to human-and-state-intervention – was deemed unsuitable for human-habitation due to its peculiar vulnerabilities and challenges. In exploring these issues, the paper examines the role of the state in African-agricultural-systems, its impact on peasant-production-systems and patterns in Sanyati and African responses and initiatives. Using diverse sources, the article demonstrates that the forced-migration of Africans from Rhodesdale to Sanyati significantly compromised their livelihoods. It also argues that African responses and productive-capacities were varied, leading to rural-differentiation among the peasants.
Notes
1 Rural differentiation refers to the economic, political, cultural and normatively defined relations that underlie the construction of social categories.
2 For the indigenous Shangwe people of Sanyati, the ‘immigrants’ or newcomers from the south-east – people whom they derogatorily named Madheruka after the sound of the Thames Trader and Bedford lorries that brought them – both advocated and embodied the prescriptions and ideals of the Rhodesian development regime. See Eric Worby, ‘What Does Agrarian Wage Labour Signify? Cotton, Commoditisation, and Social Form in Gokwe, Zimbabwe’, Journal of Peasant Studies, 23 (1995), 1–29; Mark Nyandoro, ‘Development and Differentiation: The Case of TILCOR/ARDA Irrigation Activities in Sanyati (Zimbabwe), 1939 to 2000’ (PhD thesis, University of Pretoria, 2007).
3 Alois S. Mlambo, ‘Building a White Man’s Country: Aspects of White Immigration into Rhodesia up to World War II’, Zambezia, 25, 2 (1998), 123–146.
4 Rhodesdale was a big ranching area owned by LONRHO in Southern Rhodesia. Most of the people who were moved to Sanyati during the 1950s came from Rhodesdale’s so-called squatter communities. See Ngwabi Bhebe, B. Burombo: African Politics in Zimbabwe, 1947–1958 (Harare: The College Press, 1989), 74.
5 Jocelyn Alexander, The Unsettled Land: State-Making and the Politics of Land in Zimbabwe 1893–2003 (Oxford: James Currey, 2006), 17.
6 Gareth Austin, ‘The “Reversal of Fortune” Thesis and the Compression of History: Perspectives from African and Comparative Economic History’, Journal of International Development, 20 (2008), 996–1027; Igor Kopytoff, ‘The Internal African Frontier: The Making of African Political Culture’, in Igor Kopytoff, ed., The African Frontier: The Reproduction of Traditional Societies (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1987), 3–84.
7 Austin, ‘The “Reversal of Fortune” Thesis’, 1003.
8 Gareth Austin, ‘Resources, Techniques, and Strategies South of the Sahara: Revising the Factor Endowments Perspective on African Economic Development, 1500–2000’, The Economic History Review, 61, 3 (2008), 610.
9 Ibid.
10 For Sanyati, see Nyandoro, ‘Development and Differentiation’; for Gokwe, see Pauline E. Peters, ‘Inequality and Social Conflict over Land in Africa’, Journal of Agrarian Change, 4, 3 (2004), 302.
11 Paul Mosley, The Settler Economies: Studies in the Economic History of Kenya and Southern Rhodesia, 1900–1963 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983).
12 Ibid., 25.
13 Ibid., 139. See among others Government of Southern Rhodesia, What the Native Land Husbandry Act Means to the Rural African and to Southern Rhodesia: A Five Year Plan that Will Revolutionise African Agriculture (Salisbury: Government Printers, 1955); V.E.M. Machingaidze, ‘Agrarian Change from Above: The Southern Rhodesian Native Land Husbandry Act and African Response’, International Journal of African Historical Studies, 24, 3 (1991), 557–589.
14 Mosley, Settler Economies. See also Robin Palmer and Neil Parsons, eds, The Roots of Rural Poverty in Central and Southern Africa (London: Heinemann, 1977); Colin Bundy, The Rise and Fall of the South African Peasantry (Berkely: University of California Press, 1979).
15 Kopytoff, ‘Internal African Frontier’.
16 Ibid.
17 Ibid.
18 Carlos Oya, ‘Stories of Rural Accumulation in Africa: Trajectories and Transitions among Rural Capitalists in Senegal’, Journal of Agrarian Change, 7, 4 (2007), 453.
19 For Oya, rural farmers’ differentiation is a fact of life. Carlos Oya, ‘Contract Farming in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Survey of Approaches, Debates and Issues, Journal of Agrarian Change, 12, 1 (2012), 6.
20 Oya, ‘Stories of Rural Accumulation in Africa’, 453.
21 Ibid.
22 Ibid., 457.
23 Ibid., 489.
24 Ibid.
25 differentiation refers to the econ Philip L. Raikes, ‘Rural Differentiation and Class-Formation in Tanzania’, The Journal of Peasant Studies, 5, 3 (1978), 285–325.
26 Ibid., 285.
27 Philip L. Raikes, ‘Differentiation and Progressive Farmer Policies’, Seminar Paper (Dar es Salaam: ERB, 1972). See also Raikes, ‘Rural Differentiation and Class-Formation in Tanzania’, 286.
28 Raikes, ‘Rural Differentiation and Class-Formation in Tanzania’, 286.
29 Peters, ‘Inequality and Social Conflict over Land in Africa’, 269.
30 Philip L. Raikes, ‘Modernization and Adjustment in African Peasant Agriculture’, in Deborah Bryceson, Cristobal Kay and Jos Mooij, eds, Disappearing Peasantries? Rural Labour in Africa, Asia and Latin America (London: Intermediate Technology Publications, 2000), 66. See also Peters, ‘Inequality and Social Conflict over Land in Africa’, 269.
31 Peters, ‘Inequality and Social Conflict over Land in Africa’, 283; Raikes, ‘Rural Differentiation and Class-Formation in Tanzania’.
32 Pauline E. Peters, ‘Conflicts over Land and Threats to Customary Tenure in Africa’, African Affairs, 112, 449 (2013), 548.
33 Pauline E. Peters, ‘Land Appropriation, Surplus People and a Battle over Visions of Agrarian Futures in Africa’, Journal of Peasant Studies, 40, 3 (2013), 549.
34 Ben Cousins, What Is a Smallholder? Class Analytical Perspectives on Small-Scale Farming and Agrarian Reform in South Africa, Working Paper 16 (South Africa: Institute for Poverty, Land and Agrarian Studies (PLAAS), University of the Western Cape, 2007), 2; Peters, ‘Land Appropriation’, 549.
35 Pauline E. Peters, ‘Rural Income and Poverty in a Time of Radical Change in Malawi’, Special Issue, Journal of Development Studies, 42, 2 (2006), 322–345.
36 Carlos Oya, ‘Agro-Pessimism, Capitalism and Agrarian Change: Trajectories and Contradictions in Sub-Saharan Africa’, in V. Padayachee, ed., Political Economy of Africa (London: Routledge, 2010), 85–109; Peters, ‘Land Appropriation’, 554.
37 Oya, ‘Agro-Pessimism, Capitalism and Agrarian Change’.
38 Peters, ‘Land Appropriation’, 554.
39 Ibid.
40 M. Drinkwater, ‘Technical Development and Peasant Impoverishment: Land Use Policy in Zimbabwe’s Midlands Province’, Journal of Southern African Studies, 15 (1989), 287–305.
41 Nyandoro, ‘Development and Differentiation’, 53.
42 Terence O. Ranger, Peasant Consciousness and Guerrilla War in Zimbabwe: A Comparative Study (Harare: Zimbabwe Publishing House/ZPH, 1985).
43 D.J. Murray, The Governmental System in Southern Rhodesia (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1970), 35; Sara S. Berry, No Condition Is Permanent: The Social Dynamics of Agrarian Change in Sub-Saharan Africa (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1993), 46–53.
44 Berry, No Condition Is Permanent.
45 Ibid.
46 Mark Nyandoro, ‘Zimbabwe’s Land Struggles and Land Rights in Historical Perspective – The Case of Gowe-Sanyati Irrigation (1950–2000)’, Historia, 57, 2 (2012), 326.
47 Berry, No Condition Is Permanent.
48 Ibid.
49 William A. Masters, Government and Agriculture in Zimbabwe (London: Praeger Publishers, 1994).
50 Eric Worby, ‘Remaking Labour, Reshaping Identity: Cotton, Commoditisation and the Culture of Modernity in North Western Zimbabwe’ (PhD dissertation, McGill University, 1992); Pius S. Nyambara, ‘A History of Land Acquisition in Gokwe, Northwestern Zimbabwe, 1945–1997’ (PhD Dissertation, Northwestern University, 1999); Nyandoro, ‘Development and Differentiation’; Mark Nyandoro, ‘Land and Agrarian Policy in Colonial Zimbabwe: Re-ordering of African Society and Development in Sanyati, 1950–1966’, Historia, 64, 1 (2019), 111–139.
51 Worby, ‘Remaking Labour’; Nyambara, ‘A History of Land Acquisition in Gokwe’.
52 Pius S. Nyambara, ‘That Place was Wonderful! African Tenants in Rhodesdale Estate, Colonial Zimbabwe, c. 1900–1952’, The International Journal of African Historical Studies, 38, 2 (2005), 267–299.
53 Ibid.
54 On the privileged position of chiefs and village headmen, see also Berry, No Condition Is Permanent.
55 Worby, ‘Remaking Labour’; Nyambara, ‘A History of Land Acquisition in Gokwe’. See also Nyandoro, ‘Land and Agrarian Policy in Colonial Zimbabwe’, 119.
56 Nyandoro, ‘Land and Agrarian Policy in Colonial Zimbabwe'.
57 Mlambo, ‘Building a White Man’s Country’.
58 Mette Masst, ‘The Harvest of Independence: Commodity Boom and Socio-Economic Differentiation among Peasants in Zimbabwe’ (PhD Dissertation, Roskilde University, 1996).
59 See Worby, ‘Remaking Labour’; Worby, ‘What Does Agrarian Wage Labour Signify?’; Nyambara, ‘A History of Land Acquisition in Gokwe’; Nyandoro, ‘Development and Differentiation’.
60 Bhebe, B. Burombo; Nyandoro, ‘Land and Agrarian Policy in Colonial Zimbabwe’.
61 Nyambara, ‘That Place Was Wonderful!’, 291.
62 Ranger, Peasant Consciousness.
63 Ibid.
64 National Archives of Zimbabwe (Records Centre), Ministry of Internal Affairs, hereafter NAZ (RC), MIA, 158086, C19.6.7F, DC’s File, District Information, Includes Programme of Events 1890 to 1961, Calendar of Events: Sanyati TTL, 1961–1971.
65 Nyandoro, ‘Development and Differentiation’, 63.
66 Interview with Joke Munyaka Wozhele, Chief Wozhele’s Grandson, ARDA Main Irrigation Estate, Sanyati, 20 October 2004.
67 Nyandoro, ‘Development and Differentiation’, 62; Nyandoro, ‘Land and Agrarian Policy in Colonial Zimbabwe’, 121.
68 Nyandoro, ‘Development and Differentiation', 62; Nyandoro, ‘Land and Agrarian Policy in Colonial Zimbabwe’, 121.; O. Gjerstad, ed., The Organizer: Story of Temba Moyo (Richmond, BC, Canada: LSM Press, 1974), 32.
69 Ibid.
70 Anon, ‘The Husbandry Act: Partial Solution to the Problem of Land Rights’, The Bantu Mirror, 4 August 1956, 1; Nyandoro, ‘Development and Differentiation’.
71 Bhebe, B. Burombo, 76–79; Nyambara, ‘That Place Was Wonderful!’, 292.
72 Jocelyn Alexander, JoAnn McGregor and Terence O. Ranger, Violence and Memory: One Hundred Years in the ‘Dark Forests’ of Matabeleland (Portsmouth: NH, 2000), 96; Nyambara, ‘That Place Was Wonderful!’, 292.
73 Nyambara, ‘That Place Was Wonderful!’, 294.
74 Interview with Joke Munyaka Wozhele, Chief Wozhele’s Grandson, ARDA Main Irrigation Estate, Sanyati, 20 October 2004; Interview with Chief M.T. Wozhele, Chief’s Court, ‘Old Council’/Wozhele Business Centre, Sanyati, 17 October 2004. For ‘hidden’ forms of resistance and what Scott calls resistance from dominated groups who voice their resistance in ‘cryptic and opaque’ ways – often for their own safety – see James C. Scott, Weapons of the Weak: Everyday Forms of Resistance (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1985); James C. Scott, ‘Voice under Domination: The Arts of Political Disguise’, Chapter 6 in James C. Scott, Domination and the Arts of Resistance: Hidden Transcripts (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1990.
75 Interview with Joke Munyaka Wozhele, Chief Wozhele’s Grandson, ARDA Main Irrigation Estate, Sanyati, 20 October 2004.
76 Nyandoro, ‘Land and Agrarian Policy in Colonial Zimbabwe’, 123.
77 Nyambara, ‘That Place Was Wonderful!’, 294–295; Nyandoro, ‘Development and Differentiation’, 43; Nyandoro, ‘Land and Agrarian Policy in Colonial Zimbabwe’, 122.
78 Nyandoro, ‘Development and Differentiation’, 46.
79 Ibid.
80 Ibid., 133.
81 Ibid., 103.
82 Ranger, Peasant Consciousness.
83 Bhebe, B. Burombo; Ranger, Peasant Consciousness; Nyambara, ‘That Place Was Wonderful!’.
84 Saul Gwakuba Ndlovu, ‘Rise of Black Movements in Rhodesia’, The Patriot, 21 September 2017, https://www.thepatriot.co.zw/old_posts/rise-of-black-movements-in-rhodesia/, accessed 20 September 2020; Nyambara, ‘That Place Was Wonderful!’, 294.
85 Ndlovu, ‘Rise of Black Movements in Rhodesia’.
86 Ranger, Peasant Consciousness.
87 Mark Nyandoro, ‘TILCOR-Sanyati Irrigation: A Case of Development within the Decentralisation Policy Context in Colonial Zimbabwe, 1956–1980’, Zambezia Journal of Humanities, 42, i/ii (2015), 128–151.
88 Nyandoro, ‘Land and Agrarian Policy in Colonial Zimbabwe’.
89 On the violation of land, water and property rights, see Jens A. Andersson, ‘How Much Did Property Rights Matter? Understanding Food Insecurity in Zimbabwe: A Critique of Richardson’, African Affairs, 106, 425 (2007), 681–690; Nyandoro, ‘Zimbabwe’s Land Struggles’, 298–349.
90 See Nyandoro, ‘Development and Differentiation’; Mark Nyandoro and Lucy Nyandoro, ‘Colonial Agrarian History of Sanyati (Zimbabwe): Prelude, Debates and Innuendoes of Tribal Trust Land Development Corporation (TILCOR) Decentralised Development, 1948–1979’, Zambezia Journal of Humanities, 43, ii (2016), 1–22; Nyambara, ‘A History of Land Acquisition in Gokwe’.
91 NAZ (RC), MIA, 158086, C19.6.7F, DC’s File, District Information, Includes Programme of Events 1890 to 1961, Calendar of Events: Sanyati TTL, 1961–1971.
92 Climate-Data.Org, ‘Climate: Sanyati’, https://en.climate-data.org/location/765229/, accessed 27 April 2017.
93 NAZ, S1194/190/1, Report of a meeting held in September 1950.
94 Nyandoro, ‘Development and Differentiation’, 43.
95 Ibid., 44.
96 Ibid.
97 See LDO Monthly Report, December, 1950 in NAZ, S160/DG/105/2/50, Gatooma District: Sub-Division: Sanyati Reserve: 1950–1951, LDO Monthly Reports, Native Agriculture, 1950–1951.
98 Interview with Ian Douglas Smith, Former Prime Minister of Rhodesia, Belgravia Home, Harare, 28 September 1993.
99 For the 8-acre limitation imposed by the NLHA on individual family holdings, see Mosley, Settler Economies, 252.
100 However, besides Gowe-Sanyati of 1967 some earlier irrigation schemes that were established in colonial Zimbabwe included the Nyachowa, Nyanyadzi, Mutambara and Devure irrigation projects in Manicaland (see ).
101 Machingaidze, ‘Agrarian Change from Above’; Nyandoro, ‘TILCOR-Sanyati Irrigation’.
102 Among others, see Ian Phimister, An Economic and Social History of Zimbabwe, 1890–1948: Capital Accumulation and Class Struggle (London: Longman, 1988), 279; Nyandoro, ‘Development and Differentiation’, 23; Guy Thompson, ‘Cultivating Conflict: Agricultural “Betterment”, the Native Land Husbandry Act (NLHA) and Ungovernability in Colonial Zimbabwe, 1951–1962’, Africa Development, 29, 3 (2004), 1–39.
103 Interview with Headman T.M. Lozane, Lozane Village Homestead, Sanyati, 18 October 2004.
104 Nyandoro, ‘Development and Differentiation’, 43. Worby, ‘Remaking Labour’; Interview with Chief M.T. Wozhele, Chief’s Court, ‘Old Council’/Wozhele Business Centre, Sanyati, 17 October 2004.
105 Nyandoro, ‘Development and Differentiation’.
106 Kopytoff, ‘Internal African Frontier’.
107 Ibid.; Nyandoro, ‘Development and Differentiation’.
108 Nyambara, ‘That Place Was Wonderful!’
109 Nyandoro, ‘Development and Differentiation’.
110 Nyambara, ‘That Place Was Wonderful!’
111 Nyandoro, ‘Development and Differentiation’.
112 Ibid.; Interview with Morgan Gazi, Madiro Village Headman, Ward 23, Agricura, ARDA Sanyati Main Growth Point, 15 October 2004.
113 Ibid.
114 NAZ, S160/DG/104/1A/50, LDO Que Que to Director, Native Agriculture, 4 March 1951; Nyandoro, ‘Development and Differentiation’; Nyandoro, ‘Land and Agrarian Policy in Colonial Zimbabwe’, 130.
115 Ibid.
116 Maize, among other crops, became one of the major marketed and domestic food sources, while from the 1960s cotton became the major export commodity of much of colonial and post-colonial Zimbabwe, and indeed Africa.
117 The increase in intensity of agrarian commodity production was accompanied by an efflorescence of various co-operative or collective labour forms. See Worby, ‘What Does Agrarian Wage Labour Signify?, 1; Nyandoro, ‘Land and Agrarian Policy in Colonial Zimbabwe’, 129.
118 Nyandoro, ‘Land and Agrarian Policy in Colonial Zimbabwe’, 129.
119 B. Cousins, D. Weiner and N. Amin, ‘Social Differentiation in the Communal Lands’, Review of African Political Economy, 53 (1992), 5–24; Eric Worby, ‘A Redivided Land? New Agrarian Conflicts and Questions in Zimbabwe’, Journal of Agrarian Change, 1, 4 (2001), 475–509; Nyandoro, ‘Land and Agrarian Policy in Colonial Zimbabwe’, 129.
120 Nyandoro, ‘Development and Differentiation’.
121 Ibid.
122 M.J. Spierenburg, Strangers, Spirits and Land Reforms: Conflicts about Land in Dande, Northern Zimbabwe (Leiden: Brill, 2004).
123 NAZ (RC), MIA, Box 158086, Location C19.6.7F, File: DC’s File, District Information 1961–1971, includes Programme of Events 1890 to 1961 and Calendar of Events, Sanyati TTL, 1961–1971.
124 See Nyambara, ‘A History of Land Acquisition in Gokwe’; Nyandoro, ‘Zimbabwe’s Land Struggles’.
125 Due to land shortage, in the 1950s and 1960s, many people were ploughing in the grazing areas to make up for the lack of land despite the threat of prosecution. For encroaching onto the grazing lot, in 1964 the DC of Gatooma (R.L. Westcott) intimated that offenders would be charged under Section 42 of the African Affairs Act, which empowered law-enforcement agents to prosecute them for disobeying the orders of the chiefs and headmen against this illegal practice. See NAZ (RC), MIA, Box 158077, Location C19.2.10R, File: LAN 9 Sanyati and Ngezi: 1951–1964; R.L. Westcott (DC Gatooma) to Member in Charge, BSA Police, Featherstone, 1 December 1964.
126 Nyandoro, ‘Zimbabwe’s Land Struggles’.
127 Nyandoro, ‘Land and Agrarian Policy in Colonial Zimbabwe’, 135.
128 Nyandoro, ‘Development and Differentiation’, 91.
129 Nyandoro, ‘Land and Agrarian Policy in Colonial Zimbabwe’.
130 Response to Questionnaire, R.L. Westcott, Former DC Gatooma, to M. Nyandoro, 6 May 1997.
131 NAZ (RC), ARDA, 348041, R24.9.6.1R, File: SET/10 Gowe Pools Settlement Scheme, ‘Memorandum: Rural Development Promotion Unit’s Handover/Takeover Final Working Report Sanyati-Gowe Pools Settlement Scheme’, Settler Programmes Co-ordinator to Settlement Officer, Sanyati, 26 August 1988, 3.
132 NAZ (RC), MIA, Box 158086, Location C19.6.7F, DC’s File: District Information 1961–1971, Includes Programme of Events 1890 to 1961: ‘Report’ submitted to the DC Gatooma, R. L. Westcott, in terms of Circular No. 222 by W.D.R. Baker, Provincial Commissioner (PC), Mashonaland South on the PC’s visit to Gatooma, 30 July 1966; Interview with Job Gwacha, COTTCO Records Clerk, Former Irrigation Plotholder and Kusi Village Communal Farmer, COTTCO Depot, Sanyati Growth Point, 17 May 2005; Interview with Norman S. Gwacha, Communal Farmer and Former Secretary of Gowe Co-operative Society, Kusi Village, Sanyati Communal Lands, 8 January 1997.
133 Ibid.
134 NAZ (RC), DC Gatooma – MIA, Box 158098, Location C19.10.7R, File: ‘Gowe Irrigation Scheme: Sanyati TTL (EX CONEX)’, Preliminary Project Report, 1968.
135 Ibid.
136 Raikes, ‘Rural Differentiation and Class-Formation in Tanzania’. See also Nyandoro, ‘Development and Differentiation’.
137 Allen Isaacman, Cotton is the Mother of Poverty: Peasants, Work and Rural Struggle in Colonial Mozambique, 1938–1961 (London: James Curry, 1995); Nyambara, ‘A History of Land Acquisition in Gokwe’.
138 Worby, ‘Remaking Labour’, 214.
139 Eric Worby, ‘Maps, Names and Ethnic Games: The Epistemology and Iconography of Colonial Power in North-Western Zimbabwe’, Journal of Southern African Studies, 20 (1994), 390.
140 Nyandoro, ‘Development and Differentiation’.
141 Ibid., 115.
142 Ibid.
143 Ibid.; Interview with Jacob Rukara, Messenger, District Administrator’s (DA) Office, Kadoma, 16 October 2004.
144 Peters, ‘Land Appropriation’, 554.
145 Nyandoro, ‘Development and Differentiation’, 115; Interview with Jacob Rukara, Messenger, District Administrator’s (DA) Office, Kadoma, 16 October 2004.
146 Nyandoro, ‘Development and Differentiation’, 116.
147 See C.A. Smith, ‘Does a Commodity Economy Enrich the Few While Ruining the Masses? Differentiation Among Petty Commodity Producers in Guatemala’, The Journal of Peasant Studies, 11, 3 (1984), 60–95.
148 Nyambara, ‘A History of Land Acquisition in Gokwe’.
149 Lenin cited in Smith, ‘Does a Commodity Economy Enrich the Few’, 60–61.
150 Ian Phimister, ‘Rethinking the Reserves: Southern Rhodesia’s Land Husbandry Act Reviewed’, Journal of Southern African Studies, 19, 2 (1993), 225–239.
151 Ibid.
152 Ranger cited in Phimister, ‘Rethinking the Reserves’.
Additional information
Notes on contributors
Mark Nyandoro
Mark Nyandoro is a professor of economic history in the Department of History, Heritage and Knowledge Systems, (University of Zimbabwe), and Extraordinary Professor of Research, Faculty of Humanities, NWU-Vaal Campus, South Africa. He taught at the University of Botswana and is a visiting research fellow at the United Nations University–Institute for Natural Resources in Africa (UNU-INRA). Nyandoro has published extensively on water/water-borne diseases, large/small water impoundments (reservoirs/dams), irrigation agriculture, land/drought, food security, state institutions, migration, poverty, climate change and the environment in Environment and History, Journal for Contemporary History, Journal of International Women’s Studies, Journal of African Historical Review and Social Science Spectrum. He is writing a book on water, industrialisation and economic development in Zimbabwe.