![Sample our Geography journals, sign in here to start your FREE access for 14 days]({"type":"image" , "src" : "/sda/5937/TOC-Subject-Sample-2021-Geography.jpg"})
ABSTRACT
Ancient Chinese cities were closely connected to extramural areas. Therefore, research on the construction of urban space in ancient China should not be restricted to the area within the city wall; rather it should extend to the surrounding areas. There has been plenty of research on the urban planning and design of Chang’an in Tang Dynasty (618–907), which is the capital of the most prosperous dynasty of ancient China. However, little research has paid attention to its spatial order at the regional scale. This article aims to solve this problem using the ‘triple-evidence’ method, i.e. based on the evidences from archaeology, literature and field survey. More specifically, it explores the main problems involved in regional spatial construction, reveals the general strategies for construction of the regional spatial order, and further analyses the planning and design approaches for different spatial scales. This paper reveals that ‘Taking the High Ground’ is the main method used in the construction of regional spatial order of Chang’an Area in Tang Dynasty, which reflects the dialectical whole of ‘configurational force’ and ‘form’ in the planning and design theories of ancient China.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.
Notes on contributors
Dr Lu Guo has a PhD in Urban and Rural Planning from Tsinghua University (China). She is an assistant professor of Urban Planning and Design at School of Architecture, Tsinghua University and Jing Brand Fellow (2015–2016) at Needham Research Institute of Cambridge (UK). Her research and publications focus on the history of urban and regional planning of China.
Dr Xiao Rong has a PhD in Architecture from the University of Cambridge (UK). She is a lecturer of Urban Planning and Design at Department of Architecture, Shanghai University (China). Her research and publications focus on land use and transport development patterns of Chinese cities, and social equity in urban planning.
Notes
1 Yan, Tang Xijing Kao; Ma, “Sui Tang Chang’an Cheng”; Boyd, Chinese Architecture and Town Planning.
2 Zhang, Tangdu Chang’an; Heng, Cities of Aristocrats and Bureaucrats; Xiong, Sui-Tang Chang’an.
3 Fu, Zhongguo Gudai Chengshi Guihua Jianzhuqun Buju Ji Jianzhu Jianshe Fangfa Yanjiu.
4 Mote, “Transformation of Nanking.”
5 Kotkin, The City, 53.
6 Shi, “Xi’an Diqu Dixing De Lishi Yanbian.”
7 Shi, Zhu, Cao, Huangtu Gaoyuan Senlin Yu Caoyuan De Bianqian.
8 Wang, Shanxi Gudai Jiaotong Gaishu.
9 Li, Guanzhong Shuili Kaifa Yu Huanjng.
10 Lewis, China’s Cosmopolitan Empire, 1.
11 In history, Zhongnan Mountain refers to two different ranges. In the broad sense, it refers to the middle segment of Qinling Mountains, which is within current Shaanxi Province. In the narrow sense, it refers to the middle segment of the Zhongnan Mountain in the broad sense, mainly consisted of the segment from Wugong in the west to Lantian in the east. In this paper, Zhongnan Mountain refers to the broad sense if not specified.
12 Li, Shanxi Dili, 20–37.
13 The loess tableland (Mandarin: yuan) is the unbroken part of the Loess Plateau, formed by slight erosion of the loess platform. The tableland has a shallow slope, but the ravines that run along its sides are deep. Because the loess layer is flat, broad and thick, the tablelands are suitable for farming. (See Yang and Li, Dimaoxue Yuanli, 130–1).
14 Ouyang, Xin Tang Shu (1060), Vol. 51
15 The population of Jingzhao and the four Assistant Prefectures is about 3.1 million according to Vol. 43 of Jiu Tangshu [Old Book of Tang], and the land area is about 47.9 thousand km2 estimated based on Tan’s Historical Atlas of China. This population data only included the registered population, and the actual population of the Central Shaanxi Plain was higher than this figure. For example, a large population was not under the management of prefectures and counties, but of various departments of Central Government, including the members of the royal family, eunuchs, maids in the imperial palaces and household troops. Besides, there was also a high migrant population.
16 Needham, Science and Civilisation in China, Vol. 1, 125.
17 Qian, Zhongguo Wenhua Shi Daolun, 172.
18 The Tang Dynasty marked the highpoint of institutional Daoism and Buddhism in imperial China, both in social influence and intellectual prestige. Daoism enjoyed unparalleled political influence owing to the support of the imperial family, and Buddhism emerged during this period as a truly Chinese faith. (Lewis, China’s Cosmopolitan Empire, 207).
19 Wu, “Xizhou Chengshi Fazhan De Kongjian Toushi.”
20 As for the division of the six slopes, there have been many debates. It has been more than 1000 years since Tang Dynasty, and the scouring of rain and rivers and human activities such as farming and construction have led to significant changes in the natural topography. In particular, the main urban area of Xi’an City largely overlaps with Chang’an City in Sui and Tang Dynasties. Today, it is difficult to distinguish what the natural landform was like when Yuwen Kai made the plan for Daxing. In the 1980s, Ma Zhenglin for the first time drew the detailed distribution of six slopes based on the modern topographic map, which has profound influence (Ma, “Tang Chang’An Cheng Zongti Buju De Dili Tezheng”) More than 20 years later, Li Lingfu re-divided the areas of six slopes according to a more specific geological and geomorphic map (Li. “Sui Tang Chang’ancheng Liuyao Dixing Ji Qi Dui Chengshi Jianshe De Yingxiang”), which highlights the geomorphic feature of intertwined ridges and depressions. As for the specific boundaries of six slopes, the main dispute between them is about whether Leyou Tableland belonged to the fifth or sixth highland. According to the 1:10000 topographic map of Xi’an in 1933 (Map of Eastern Asia- China-Xi’an, Taiwan: http://catalog.digitalarchives.tw/item/00/02/e0/ec.html), we adopted Li Lingfu’s opinion based on the extent of topographic change, and believed that Leyou Tableland belonged to the sixth highland.
21 Li, Yuanhe junxian zhi (814), Vol. 15.
22 Shaoling Tableland was located at the southeast part of Chang’an City between the Chan River and Jue River, with an altitude of 470–630 m, 80–150 m higher than the valley of the two rivers; Shenhe Tableland was located at the east part of Shaoling Tableland, between the Jue River and Hao River, it extended from southeast to northwest, with an altitude of 490–600 m, 80–150 m higher than the Ju River and Hao River.
23 Song, Chang’an Zhi (1076), Vol. 7.
24 Ibid, Vol. 8.
25 1 chi equals about 29.5 cm.
26 Department of Geography of Shaanxi Normal University. Xi’an Shi Dili Zhi, 73.
27 Dong, Quan Tangwen (1814), Vol. 127.
28 The main part is the place where the emperors were buried. The emperors’ mausoleums are consisted of various parts such as attendant tombs, spirit way, etc.
29 Li, Chang'an Zhi Tu (1344), Vol. 2.
30 Wang, Tang Hui Yao (961), Vol. 20.
31 Commentary on Zheng Yu's (fl. 9th century) Poetry of Jinyang Gate (Ji, Tangshi Jishi, Vol. 62).
32 Song, Chang’an Zhi (1076), Vol. 15; Cheng, Yong Lu, Vol. 4.
33 Zhang Ji (c.715–779), “Huaqing Gong,” In Peng, Quan Tangshi, Vol. 242.
34 Shi. Lintong Xian Zhi (1776), Vol. 2.
35 an ancient expression quoted in Luo, Leibian Chang’An Zhi (1292), Vol. 3.
36 Sun Yiren (fl. 8th century), “Chaoyuan Ge Fu [Ode to Chaoyuan Pavilion],” In Dong, Quan Tangwen, Vol. 407.
37 For Shiweng Temple, Chu Guangxi (706–760) described it in his poem “Shiweng Temple,” ‘Looking at the palace (from the temple), the palace looked very small’ (Peng, Quan Tangshi, Vol. 137); in “Inscription to Shiweng Temple” written by Fan Chao (fl. 8th century), ‘A great place suitable to look far into the distance’ (Peng, Quan tangshi, Vol. 145); for Lüge Pavilion and Honglou Tower, in Lintong County Annals (Shi. Lintong Xian Zhi (1776), Vol. 2), ‘Lüge Pavilion was on the west, and Honglou Tower was on the east … the narrow mountain road was spiral up, which was zigzag on both upper and lower sides. From the shadow of cypresses, you could look down at Wei River in the north direction, and it was bright and delicate, like a line.’
38 Shang, Zengxiu Huaqing Gong Ji. The ancient Shangyu Area was to the southeast of the Central Shaanxi Plain, now it is the area of Shangnan County, Xichuan County and Neichuan County.
39 Du Mu(803–852) , “Guo Huaqing Gong [Passing Huaqing Palace],” in Peng, Quan Tangshi, Vol. 521.
40 It became famous in Qin and Han Dynasties. During construction of Daxing City in Sui Dynasty, it was renovated and expanded. In Tang Dynasty, it was also under continuous maintenance and management.
41 Wang Qi (fl. 9th century), “Qujiang Chi Fu [Ode to Huaqing Pool,” In Dong. Quan Tangwen. Vol. 770.
42 A government department in ancient China, in charge of royal family affairs.
43 A successful candidate in the highest imperial examinations.
44 Xu. Tang Liangjing Chengfang Kao (1810), Vol. 3.
45 In Sui Dynasty, Furong Garden was a detached palace. In the garden, there were tall buildings and long corridors, which were connected in a zigzag way. This place covered a large area, which was high and dry. There were also tall bamboos and dense forest, and green vegetation covered the mountains. (Li. Taiping Yulan.Vol. 197.)
46 Royal Academy set up by Emperor Gaozu of Tang in the purpose to teach music, theater, and dance for court entertainment.
47 The well-known works includes Liu Cang’s (fl. 9th century) “Jidi Hou Yan Qujiang[[Banquet at Qujiang Pool after Passing The Imperial Examination],” Bai Juyi’s (772–846) “Zaochun Duyou Qujiang [Visit Qujiang Alone in Early Spring],” Wang Qi’s (fl. 9th century) “Qujiangchi Fu [Ode to Qujiang Pool],” etc.
48 Shi, Cao. You Chengnan Ji Jiaozhu.
49 Xianling mausoleum had 30 subordinate tombs, Zhaoling mausoleum had 167, Qianling mausoleum had 17, Dingling mausoleum had 6, Qiaoling mausoleum had 10, Jianling mausoleum had 8, Jingling mausoleum had 2, Tailing mausoleum had 1, Guangling mausoleum had 1 and Zhuangling mausoleum had 1.
50 The horizontal viewport of human eyes consists of four levels, and the maximum viewport is 120° when the head stays still and expanded to 120° when the head can move. (Xu; Tao, Renti Gongchengxue Gailun. 115.)
51 Needham, Science and Civilisation in China, Vol. 2, 582.