Protecting secrets: British diplomatic cipher machines in the early Cold War, 1945–1970

ABSTRACT

This article examines how effectively Britain secured its diplomatic communications against hostile decryption during the early Cold War. It shows that between 1945 and 1970 the Foreign Office and the Commonwealth Relations Office introduced and operated four advanced cipher machines, Typex, Rockex, Noreen and Alvis, which produced very strong ciphers. However, Britain did suffer physical compromises of Rockex through Soviet espionage and an attack on the British embassy in Beijing. Rockex was also vulnerable to technical surveillance of its acoustic and Tempest emissions, and the Soviets exploited this to read the encrypted communications of the British embassy in Moscow.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author.

Notes

1. Aldrich, GCHQ; Aid, The Secret Sentry; and Budiansky, Code Warriors. See also Aid and Wiebes, Secrets of Signals Intelligence.

2. Aldrich, GCHQ, 55–7,191–2, 209–212, 241–2; and Aldrich, Whitehall wiring.

3. Ferris, ”The British Enigma”; and Smith, ”Bletchley Park”.

4. Ferris, ”The British Enigma,” 138.

5. The websites http://www.cryptomuseum.com/ and http://www.jproc.ca/crypto/menu.html also have valuable technical information about the cipher machines.

6. The National Archives (TNA), FO 850/134, File note, 6 February 1944; Minute Travis to Sargent, 12 June 1944; CAB 116/30, War Cabinet Paper, S(42) 27 ”Cypher Security,” 29 September 1942; and Ferris, The British Enigma, 157.

7. Aldrich, “Whitehall wiring,” 181.

8. Aldrich, GCHQ, 55–57.

9. TNA, DEFE 32/18, Minute Burroughs to Ryland, Annex A, 3 June 1969.

10. Ferris, ”The British Enigma.” 177–178; and TNA, DEFE 32/18, Minute Burroughs to Ryland, Annex A, 3 June 1969; TNA, T 220/1406, Minute by Rampton, CPB (62) 1, ”Services Communication Development Unit,” 20 January 1953; TNA, DEFE 5/58, Memorandum COS (55) 113, 11 May 1955.

11. See note 9.

12. Aldrich, GCHQ, 103, 191–2; Aldrich, Whitehall wiring, 182–3; TNA, DEFE 32/18, Minute Burroughs to Ryland, Annex A, 3 June 1969; and NSA, William F. Friedman Collection of Official Papers (https://www.nsa.gov/public_info/declass/friedman_documents/index.shtml), Memorandum USCIB: 12./7, Taylor to United States Communications Intelligence Board, enclosure, 18 October 1954; http://discovery.nationalarchives.gov.uk/details/r/C9288 (Accessed January 20, 2017). It was renamed the London Communications – Electronics Security Agency in 1958. See http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/documents/information-management/osp28.pdf (Accessed July 13, 2015).

13. See note 9.

14. Ibid.; NSA, William F. Friedman Collection of Official Papers, Memorandum USCIB: 14.3/12, to U.S. Communications Intelligence board, enclosure, 24 June 1955.

15. Aldrich, Whitehall wiring, 183.

16. See note 9.

17. Ferris, ”The British Enigma,” 171–4; and Smith, ”Bletchley Park,” 187, 189–190; http://www.jproc.ca/crypto/rockex.html (Accessed April 24, 2018).

18. Ferris, ”The British Enigma,” 172; and TNA, CO 1038/3, Memorandum titled ‘Mr Robinson, Mrs. Sander and I visited the F.O. Cypher Training School on 18th July’, not dated.

19. Ferris, ”The British Enigma,” 174–175.

20. TNA, FO 850/134, Tel 5716 Washington to FO, 21 October 1944; FO 850/192, Letter 465 Clark-Kerr to Eden, 9 July 1945; FO 850/172 Telegram 3747 Clark-Kerr to Foreign Office, 24 August 1945.

21. TNA, HW 9/27, CPB (48) 1, ‘Report by Secretary for the year ended 31 July 1948, 19 February 1949.

22. TNA, FO 371/96594, Noted by Orchard, 17 November 1950.

23. TNA, HW 9/27, CPB (48) 1, ‘Report by Secretary for the year ended 31 July 1948, 19 February 1949.

24. Anonymous, ”TEMPEST: A Signal Problem,” Cryptologic Spectrum, 3/3 (1972), NSA, http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/cryptologic_spectrum/tempest.pdf (Accessed July 10, 2015).

25. Aldrich, GCHQ, 215–8; and Aldrich, Whitehall wiring, 182.

26. NSA, Friedman Collection, Memorandum LCS (53)/N/R ‘U.S. Communications Security Equipments and U.K. Cryptographic Equipments’, not dated. See also http://www.cryptomuseum.com/crypto/uk/rockex/index.htm (Accessed 19 May 2018).

27. Ferris, ”The British Enigma,” 174.

28. TNA, HW 9/27, CPB(49) 14 ‘Report by the Secretary for the year ended 31 July 1949‘, 1 March 1950.

29. TNA, T 220/1406, Letter Burton-Miller to Drake, covering CPB (52) 1, Services Communications Development Unit, 17 December 1952; Minute Rampton, 20 January 1953.

30. NSA, Friedman Collection, Memorandum LCS (53)/N/R ‘U.S. Communications Security Equipments and U.K. Cryptographic Equipments’, not dated.

31. TNA, WO 32/20,548, Telegram Sigs 422, FARELF to War Office, 11 March 1957; Note by G. Mitchell, Signals, 21 February 1957.

32. Ferris, ”The British Enigma,” 152–153.

33. Ibid., 163–4.

34. TNA, HW 9/27, CPB (48) 1, ”Report by the Secretary for the year ended 31 July 1948,” 19 February 1949.

35. Ibid; NSA, Friedman Collection, Minute Austin to Friedman, 14 September 1953, covering memorandum on ‘U.K. Cryptographic Equipments’, not dated.

36. TNA, HW 9/4, ”Notes on the 14th X/L Production Meeting,” 14 August 1950; HW 9/27, CPB (48) 1, ‘Report by the Secretary for the year ended 31 July 1948‘, 19 February 1949.

37. NSA, Friedman Collection, Memorandum LCS (53)/N/R ‘U.S. Communications Security Equipments and U.K. Cryptographic Equipments’, not dated.

38. TNA, CAB 21/4604, Minute Bennett to Thuiler, 28 March 1960.

39. Ibid.

40. TNA, CO 1038/3, Minute Costley-White to Gidden, 7 June 1963.

41. TNA, CAB 21/4604, Minute Vincent to Stannard, 28 September 1962; and CO 1038/3, Minutes of the Second Meeting of the Working Party on Integration of Foreign Office and CRO systems, 12 July 1963.

42. TNA, FO 850/325, Letter TB38/94/1 Pope to Routledge, 9 October 1964.

43. TNA, FO 850/325, Letter Milner to Vincent, 12 November 1964; CO 1038/3, Memorandum titled ‘Mr Robinson, Mrs. Sander and I visited the F.O. Cypher Training School on 18th July’, not dated; and FCO 19/168, Memorandum by Routledge, 14 October 1971.

44. National Archives of Australia (NAA), A1838, TS1218/11/1 Part 1, Minute Moodie to The Secretary, 16 August 1963; TNA, FCO 19/86, Minute Routledge to Snelling, 17 June 1971; and Dunningham, From Telegrams to eGrams, 18.

45. TNA, FCO 19/2, Letter Crowe to Head of Post, attachment valedictory report ‘4 ½ Years in the Communications Department’, 25 January 1967.

46. TNA, FCO 19/86, Minute Routledge to Snelling, 17 June 1971.

47. TNA, CO 1038/3, Minute Darby to Clemens, 22 January 1964.

48. TNA, FCO 19/159, Communication Systems Working Party Forward Planning Sub-Committee, Note of a meeting held on 10 November 1970, not dated.

49. TNA, FCO 19/168, Memorandum by Routledge, 14 October 1971.

50. TNA, FCO 19/86, Minute Routledge to Snelling, 17 June 1969; Letter Gardiner to Snelling, 16 July 1969; FCO 19/2, Letter Crowe to Head of Post, attachment valedictory report ‘4 ½ Years in the Communications Department.’ 25 January 1967; FCO 19/159, Minutes of Communications systems working party, 12th Meeting on 17 February 1970, not dated.

51. TNA, DEFE 59/16, Memorandum DSS 23/64 (Final), 26 May 1965.

52. TNA, DEFE 5/90, Memorandum COS(59) 82, Annex, 14 April 1959.

53. TNA, T 225/2074, Letter Stannard to Orchard, 26 July 1962; Minutes of Meeting at Foreign Office on ‘Provision of on-line cryptographic equipment for NATO’, 24 July 1962.

54. TNA, FCO 19/159, Minutes of Communications Systems Working Party, 12th Meeting on 17 February 1970, not dated.

55. TNA, FCO 19/159, Communication Systems Working Party, Forward Planning Subcommittee, Minutes 2nd meeting held on 17 December 1970, not dated.; Communication Systems Working Party, Forward Planning Sub Committee, Note of meeting held on 10 November 1970, not dated.

56. TNA, FCO 19/159, Communication Systems Working Party, Forward Planning Sub Committee, Note of meeting held on 10 November 1970, not dated.

57. Aid, Secret Sentry, 11–13; and Aldrich, GCHQ, 90; TNA, DEFE 59/19, Memorandum DSS 34/66 (Final), Annex A, 21 November 1966.

58. NAA, A1838, 1218/13/7, Letter Under Secretary of State, Air Ministry to Australian High Commission, London, 21 April 1949; Minute JPW to the Assistant Secretary, 25 August 1953 and A1838, TS1218/11/1 Part 1, Minute External Communications Branch to Assistant Secretary (Division 3), 11 August 1961.

59. NAA, A1838, TS1218/11/1 Part 1, Minute Walshe to Bennett, 29 January 1957; Minute External Communications Branch to Assistant Secretary (Division 3), 11 August 1961; Minute Moodie to the Secretary, 16 August 1963; and TNA, FCO 19/29, Minute AN05K/7966 CESD to Ministry of Defence, 21 June 1968 and Aldrich, GCHQ, 586.

60. TNA, HW 9/27, CPB (48) 1, ‘Report by Secretary for the year ended 31 July 1948, 19 February 1949; and CAB 21/4604, Minute Costley-White to Gardiner, Attachment ‘Cypher Machines Held by the C.R.O. and Commonwealth Governments’, 21 June 1960 and Aldrich, GCHQ, 586.

61. TNA, CAB 21/4604, Minute Costley-White to Gardiner, Attachment ‘Cypher Machines Held by the C.R.O. and Commonwealth Governments’, 21 June 1960. There is a reference to New Zealand as well as Australia and Canada potentially needing Rockex spare parts in TNA, FCO 19/168, Letter Holden to Bayley, 1 December 1971.

62. TNA, CAB 21/4604, Minute Costley-White to Gardiner, Attachment ‘Cypher Machines Held by the C.R.O. and Commonwealth Governments’, 21 June 1960.

63. TNA, CAB 21/4604, ‘Note of an informal meeting held in General Thuiller’s office’, 18 August 1961; Draft memorandum ‘Foreign Service Technical Maintenance. Installation and Maintenance of Telephone Equipment at Commonwealth Overseas posts’, not dated.

64. TNA, CAB 21/4604, Minute Costley-White to Gardiner, Attachment ‘Cypher Machines Held by the C.R.O. and Commonwealth Governments’, 21 June 1960; Note of an informal meeting held in General Thuiller’s office’, 18 August 1961.

65. NAA, A1838/1218/13/7, Minute Under-Secretary of State, Air Ministry to Australian High Commission, London, 21 April 1949; NAA, A705/201/33/441, Letter Director of Signals, Air Ministry to Director of Signals to Commander in Chief F.E.A.F., 18 June 1949.

66. TNA, FCO 19/23, Minutes Eaden to Bates, 5 January 1968; Minute Bates to Snelling, 19 March 1968.

67. Haslam, Near and Distant Neighbours, 173.

68. Andrew, KGB, 459.

69. See note 38.

70. Ratcliff, Delusions, 120.

71. See note 38.

72. NAA, A1838, TS1218/11/1, Part 1, UKCSC Minutes, 256th Meeting, Extract No. 23/1951, 9 March 1951.

73. TNA, CAB 21/4003, Memorandum COMSECA (56) 5, ‘Personal Security Rules for Cypher Staffs’, by LCSA, 30 July 1956.

74. Sebag-Montefiore, Enigma, 1, 113–5.

75. TNA, WORK 10/479, Letter 137, Wright to Foreign Office, 21 August 1958; Aldrich, GCHQ, 193; TNA, FO 366/3357, Telegram 2102, Trevelyan to Foreign Office, 10 October 1964.

76. ‘Believe it or not’ by J. G. L., Leger Roy, The Old Foreign Affairs Retired Technicians Canada Website, http://ofarts.ca/Index_files/articles/believeitornot/believeitornot.htm (Accessed February 16, 2018).

77. The Churchill Archives Centre, Sir Andrew Gilchrist Papers, Box 13/A, File ‘September 23 1963‘, not dated.

78. John F. Kennedy Presidential Library, National Security Files, Box 114A, File Indonesia General 9/63, Telegram 676, Jakarta to State Department, 23 September 1963.

79. The Canberra Times, ”British Remove Embassy Secrets,” p. 1, 25 September 1963; and The Churchill Archives Centre, Sir Andrew Gilchrist Papers, Box 13/A, File ‘Djakarta – September 1963‘, not dated.

80. Aldrich, GCHQ, 193–4.

81. Ibid., 194.

82. Churchill Archives Centre, Diplomatic Oral History Programme, Interview with Sir John Weston, https://www.chu.cam.ac.uk/media/uploads/files/Weston_l8PHksY.pdf (Accessed March 19, 2018); and Shah, Secret Towns, 136.

83. Churchill Archives, Interview with Sir John Weston.

84. See also Shah, Secret Towns, 135–6.

85. Churchill Archives, Interview with Sir John Weston and Shah, Secret Towns, 135–136.

86. TNA, CO 1038/3, Memorandum, ‘Emergency destruction of Rockex machines and ancillary equipment’, not dated.

87. Andrew and Gordievsky, KGB, 195–7; and Andrew, Defence of the Realm, 263–4.

88. Andrew, Defence of the Realm, 264.

89. Aldrich, Hidden Hand, 422–4.

90. Aldrich, GCHQ, 83–84.

91. Benson, The Venona Story, 15, 34–35. https://www.nsa.gov/about/cryptologic-heritage/historical-figures-publications/publications/coldwar/assets/files/venona_story.pdf (Accessed March 10, 2018).

92. Wright, Spycatcher, 292.

93. Cecil, A Divided Life, 135.

94. Ibid.

95. Ibid., 117, 126.

96. Johnson, American Cryptology, 165.

97. The Times, ”Trusted Foreign Office man who became spy through fear jailed for 10 years,” p. 3, 18 April 1972; The Guardian, ”10 years for embassy cipher man in Soviet spy trap,” p. 7, 18 April 1972.

98. The Guardian, ”10 years for embassy cipher man”.

99. Ibid.

100. Johnson, American Cryptology, 221.

101. Easter, “Soviet Bloc and Western Bugging,” 32.

102. Haslam, Near and Distant Neighbours, 241.

103. Easter, “Soviet Bloc and Western Bugging,” 34–36.

104. See note 102.

105. Fursenko and Naftali, Khrushchev’s Cold War, 93, 560.

106. Easter, “Soviet Bloc and Western Bugging,” 34.

107. TNA, PREM 11/3104, Minute Acland to de Zulueta, 15 August 1960.

108. Easter, “Soviet Bloc and Western Bugging,” 43–44.

109. It is conceivable that Maclean supplied information which helped the Soviets attack the Moscow Rockex machines but no evidence for this has come to light.

110. Sawatsky, Men in the Shadows, 138–141; and Ford, Our Man in Moscow, 151. It is not known which type of cipher machine was in the embassy but at that time the Canadian Department of External Affairs operated Rockex and Typex. TNA CAB 21/4604, Memorandum ‘Cypher Machines Held by the C.R.O. and Commonwealth Governments’, not dated; ‘Communications Rooms at Canadian Embassies’ by Thurlow Arbuckle, http://www.jproc.ca/crypto/canadian_embassy.html (Accessed June 13, 2018).

111. Easter, “Soviet Bloc and Western Bugging,“ 40–41; and TNA, FCO 19/86, Minute by Askew, 25 June 1969.

112. Aldrich, GCHQ, 196–7.

113. TNA, FCO 19/18, Cypher Security Working Party, Note of Eighth Meeting held in DSAO on 1 October 1968, 1 October 1968.

114. TNA, FCO 19/90, Letter Griffiths to Tonkin, 13 January 1969; Report ‘British High Commission Wellington’ by Murray and Williams, not dated.

115. Aldrich, GCHQ, 195.

116. Wright, Spycatcher, 109–114.

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David Easter

David Easter is a lecturer in the Department of War Studies at Kings College London. His research interests are intelligence and the Cold War in the Middle East and South East Asia. He is currently writing a book on GCHQ and Britain’s withdrawal from empire.