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ABSTRACT
This article analyzes the musician’s social status in Mozambique during the so-called socialist period (1974–1994), focusing on música ligeira (popular music) artists and groups. Using “ethnography of the past” and “subject-centered ethnography” as primary methodological strategies, this article explores relevant topics such as the relationship between musicians and entrepreneurs, the creation of the musician’s union, the consequences of the lack of copyright laws, and the effect of the civil war on musical activity. It also details the experience of three musicians—António Marcos, Mingas, and José Mucavele—who, in turn, represent three different solutions regarding musicians’ adaptation to the social and political changes that characterized the first years after Mozambique’s independence.
Disclosure Statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).
Correction Statement
This article has been corrected with minor changes. These changes do not impact the academic content of the article.
Notes
1. This and all subsequent cited documentation were translated into English by the author. This article revisits and extends the material initially introduced in the seventh chapter of my Ethnomusicology PhD thesis A Construção Sonora de Moçambique: Política Cultural, Radiodifusão e Indústrias da Música no Processo de Formação da Nação (1974-1994) (NOVA FCSH, Lisbon).
2. The Mozambique Liberation Front (FRELIMO) was founded on June 25, 1962, in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. Eduardo Mondlane (1920–1969) assumed the presidency of FRELIMO until his assassination on February 3, 1969. Initially, Mondlane pursued diplomatic negotiations for Mozambique’s independence. However, faced with resistance from Portuguese authorities, he organized an armed guerrilla struggle. The first attacks took place on September 25, 1964, in the provinces of Cabo Delgado and Niassa, marking the beginning of a liberation war that endured for nearly a decade until the signing of the Lusaka Accords on September 7, 1974. Following a transitional government, Mozambique’s independence was formally declared on June 25, 1975, with Samora Moisés Machel (1933–1986) assuming the first presidency. For more information, please refer to Machel; and Basto.
3. RENAMO, or Mozambican National Resistance (Resistência Nacional Moçambicana), was initially established as an armed opposition movement during the country’s civil war, which lasted from 1977 to 1992. It was formed in 1976 by the Rhodesian intelligence service and received support from South Africa’s apartheid government, especially from 1980 onwards. In its formative years, RENAMO was led by André Matsangaissa (1950–1979), who was succeeded by Afonso Dhlakama (1953–2018) in 1979. In 1992, a peace agreement was signed between RENAMO and FRELIMO, effectively ending the civil war. RENAMO was then transformed into a political party and participated in all subsequent elections. For more information, see Morgan; and Emerson.
4. Música ligeira is the Mozambican equivalent of the anglophone designation “popular music,” applied here as defined by Richard Middleton as directly aligned with the goals of the mass media and music industries (Middleton and Manuel).
5. Rádio Clube de Moçambique was founded in 1934 and received an impressive boost after the Second World War, becoming one of Africa’s most prominent commercial broadcasting companies. In 1974, it had three orchestras and a choir, in addition to transmitting more than 60,000 hours per year in fourteen languages. One of its channels—LM Radio—was explicitly directed to South African audiences with announcements in English and Afrikaans, with music from Anglophone countries. Rádio Clube also invested in promoting singing contests, even establishing a Center for Songster Training. Prominent contestants included Carlos Guilherme, Natércia Barreto, Rosa Feiteira Ferreira, and Maria José Canhoto (Freitas, “Aqui Portugal” 453–54).
6. The word “Xiconhoca” is composed of two names, Xico and Nhoca. The first derives from Francisco Langa, a Political Police employee (PIDE-DGS) known for his torture sessions at Machava jail. Nhoca means “snake” in most Mozambican languages. FRELIMO’s Department of Information and Propaganda used this infamous character to depict, in newspapers, many behavioral or evaluative dimensions that characterized the so-called “enemy of the revolution” (Meneses).
7. “Dynamizing groups” were organizations composed of elected FRELIMO members and sympathizers (usually twelve), whose primary function was the development of the political consciousness of the masses. They also had surveillance functions, seeking to denounce the “enemies of the revolution,” inculcating the values of the revolutionary process, and resolving local conflicts. Their activities occurred during the transitional government (1974–1975) and the first years after independence (Azevedo, Nnadozie, and João).
8. For more information on Mozambique’s music categorization models see Freitas and Carvalho 8–9.
9. FUNDAC aims to support initiatives, programs, and projects within the artistic domain.
10. Before June 16, 1980, the official currency in Mozambique was the Mozambican Escudo (colonial currency). On June 16, 1980, the Metical became the official currency of Mozambique (MZM). In everyday speech, “1 conto” is equivalent to 1,000 escudos (before 1980) or 1,000 meticais (from 1980 onwards). Below is an annual list of MZM to USD exchange rates every January between 1983 and 1995:
1983: 1 MZM = 24.89 USD
1984: 1 MZM = 23.56 USD
1985: 1 MZM = 23.16 USD
1986: 1 MZM = 24.73 USD
1987: 1 MZM = 3.44 USD (application of an International Monetary Fund program led to the forced devaluation of the metical)
1988: 1 MZM = 1.91 USD
1989: 1 MZM = 1.34 US
1990: 1 MZM = 1.08 USD
1991: 1 MZM = 0.70 USD
1992: 1 MZM = 0.40 USD
1993: 1 MZM = 0.26 USD
1994: 1 MZM = 0.17 USD
1995: 1 MZM = 0.11 USD
11. Big Sounds from Small Peoples: The Music Industry in Small Countries, a book by Roger Wallis and Krister Malm, published by Pendragon Press in 1984, is a pioneering contribution to studying the music industries in “small” countries (MISC). In total, 12 countries were chosen: Jamaica, Trinidad, Tunisia, Tanzania, Kenya, Sri Lanka, Sweden, Finland, Denmark, Norway, Chile, and Wales. According to the authors, “small countries” are defined by three factors: reduced population, reduced material resources, and small geographical area.
12. A capulana is a sarong worn in Mozambique and other southeastern African countries.
13. The International and State Defense Police / Directorate-General of Security.
14. For more information, see the documentary film Marrabentando: The Stories My Guitar Sings.
15. For more information on Grupo Cénico, see Siliya 147.
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Marco Roque de Freitas
Marco Roque de Freitas completed his Ph.D. in ethnomusicology in May 2019 under the program Doctor Europaeus. He is currently Visiting Assistant Professor and Junior Researcher at NOVA FCSH (New University of Lisbon). His academic production focuses on the following themes: nation-building and nationalism in postcolonial Africa; expressive behavior, gender, and sexuality; popular music and the study of music industries; digital humanities and research infrastructures; and history of ethnomusicology. He has published two books, including A Construção Sonora de Moçambique, 1974–1994 (Kulungwana, 2020; Sistema Solar, 2023). In April 2023, he started a new individual research project—“Battle of Frequencies” (2022.03938.CEECIND)—aiming to explore the place of music, radio broadcasting, and political propaganda during the liberation war in Mozambique (1964–1974).