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Abstract
This is an account of Mandela’s strategy and actions in 1961 and 1962, organising and reorienting the African National Congress (ANC). Based largely on oral memoirs and interviews, including state witness depositions, the article argues that Mandela's plans were thwarted. After the government declared the ANC illegal, Mandela helped to supervise the programme called the M-Plan, in order to lay the groundwork for mass participation in an anticipated revolutionary transformation, but the effort did not succeed. Members resisted the M-Plan reorganisation on the ground; the state assaulted the ANC and its leaders, and ripped apart communities; and the leadership denied Mandela full access to the ANC in his preparations for the violence he saw ahead of them. He was allowed to form a separate group, relying on the South African Communist Party and port city trade unionists for its organising. That smaller network, Umkhonto, was grafted into the M-Plan hierarchy a year later, problematically and partially, too little, too late.
Acknowledgements
This article was made possible by grants from the University of Maryland, the American Philosophical Society, and support from the University of Johannesburg’s History Centre. The author would like to thank Colin Bundy and two unknown peer reviewers, and William Beinart and the rest of the participants in the conference ‘Reassessing Mandela’, Oxford, UK, 19–21 July 2018.
Notes
1 T. Lodge, Black Politics in South Africa Since 1945 (Johannesburg, Ravan Press, 1983), contextually, and p. 76; D. Smith, Young Mandela: The Revolutionary Years (New York, Little, Brown, 2010); P. Bonner, ‘The Antinomies of Nelson Mandela’, in R. Barnard (ed.), The Cambridge Companion to Nelson Mandela (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2014), pp. 29–49, esp. 42–3; and S. Ellis, External Exile: The ANC in Exile, 1960–1990 (London, Hurst, 2012), pp. 22–3; P. Landau, ‘Mandela, the Reader, 1961’, The Thinker, 80, 2 (Johannesburg, 2018), pp. 56–9.
2 M. Foucault, Security, Territory, Population: Lectures at the Collège de France, 1977–1978 (New York, Picador, 2009).
3 A. Gramsci, ‘The Intellectuals’, in Q. Hoare and G.N. Smith (eds and translators), Selections from the Prison Notebooks (London, Electric Book, 1999), p. 154, available at http://abahlali.org/files/gramsci.pdf, retrieved 21 November 2019.
4 As in his Rivonia speech from the dock: News24, ‘FULL TEXT: Mandela’s Rivonia Trial Speech’, 24 January 2011, available at https://www.news24.com/NelsonMandela/Speeches/FULL-TEXT-Mandelas-Rivonia-Trial-Speech-20110124, retrieved 6 September 2019.
5 For Huntington, revolution is ‘rapid, fundamental, and violent domestic change in the dominant values and myths of a society, in its political institutions, social structure, leadership and government’: S.P. Huntington, Political Order in Changing Societies (New Haven, Yale University Press, 1968), p. 264; T. Skocpol, States and Social Revolutions: A Comparative Analysis of France, Russia, and China (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1979), p. 33.
6 The M-Plan is assumed to have been named after Mandela, and Mhlaba offers ‘Mandela Plan’ in R. Mhlaba, Raymond Mhlaba’s Personal Memoirs: Reminiscing from Rwanda and Uganda (Pretoria, Human Sciences Research Council and Robben Island Museum, 2001), p. 95; but Mhlaba pioneered the M-Plan in the 1940s, from the city council’s endeavour, a ‘sub-economic housing scheme which mapped out the township into streets and areas’: University of the Witwatersrand (Wits), Historical Papers (HP), Barbara Harmel Papers (BHP) A 3301, hereafter BHP, B 8.1, interview with Raymond Mhlaba (Phil Bonner, B. Harmel), 27–8 October 1993;
7 BHP, B 8.1, interview with Mhlaba, including ‘Part II’, audio, 28 October 1993.
8 Ibid.; G.F. Baines, History of New Brighton, Port Elizabeth, South Africa, 1903–1953: The Detroit of the Union, 1903–53 (Lewiston, Mellen, 2002); and G.F. Baines, ‘New Brighton, Port Elizabeth c.1903–1953: A History of an Urban Port Community’ (PhD thesis, University of Cape Town, 1994), esp. Ch. 7, accessed at https://open.uct.ac.za/bitstream/handle/11427/17408/thesis_hum_1994_baines_gary_fred.pdf?sequence=1, retrieved 15 November 2018.
9 D. Everatt, The Origins of Non-Racialism: White Opposition to Apartheid in the 1950s (Johannesburg, University of the Witwatersrand Press, 2009); and D. Everatt, ‘Alliance Politics of a Special Type: The Roots of the ANC/SACP Alliance, 1950–1954’, Journal of Southern African Studies, 18, 1 (1992), pp. 19–39.
10 For context, see Baines, History of New Brighton.
11 Mhlaba recalled Dhladhla, Temba Mqota, Gladstone and Bernard Chume or Tshume, and others in this context, BHP, B 8.1, interview with Raymond Mhlaba (P. Bonner, B. Harmel), 27 October 1993; Mhlaba, Personal Memoirs, pp. 60–2.
12 J. Scott, Seeing Like a State: How Certain Schemes to Improve the Human Condition Have Failed (New Haven, Yale University Press, 1999).
13 BHP, 8.1, interview with Mhlaba; and R. Suttner, The ANC Underground in South Africa (Auckland Park, Jacana, 2008), p. 113.
14 J. Cherry, ‘Traditions and Transition: African Political Participation in Port Elizabeth’, in J. Hyslop (ed.), African Democracy in the Era of Globalisation (Johannesburg, University of Witwatersrand Press, 1991), pp. 391–413, esp. 404 ff.
15 R. Suttner, ‘Culture(s) of the African National Congress of South Africa: Imprint of Exile Experiences’, Journal of Contemporary African Studies, 21, 2 (2003), pp. 303–20, 308–10 esp., and R. Suttner, ‘The African National Congress (ANC) Underground: From the M-Plan to Rivonia’, South African Historical Journal, 49, 1 (2003), pp. 123–46, esp. p. 133; A. Odendaal, ‘“Even White Boys Call Us ‘Boy’!” Early Black Organisational Politics in Port Elizabeth’, Kronos, 20, 1, (1993), pp. 3–16. An early and dated effort to grasp the M-Plan in Durban is in E. Feit, Urban Revolt in South Africa, 1960–1964: A Case Study (Evanston, Northwestern, 1971), pp. 107, 116, 125–37.
16 C. Bundy, Learning from Robben Island: Govan Mbeki’s Prison Writings (Athens, Ohio University Press, 1991), Mbeki’s account, pp. 72–4.
17 W. Sisulu, ‘I Will Go Singing’: Walter Sisulu Speaks of His Life and the Struggle for Freedom in South Africa in Conversation with George M. Houser and Herbert Shore (Cape Town, Robben Island Museum, 2001), p. 81.
18 J. Soske, Internal Frontiers: African Nationalism and the Indian Diaspora in Twentieth-Century South Africa (Athens, Ohio University Press, 2017); and HP, Social History Workshop (SHW) material, cross-listed as South African Democracy Education Trust (SADET), available to researchers and so cited hereafter HP, SHW/SADET, interview with Cecil Magqabi (Brown Maaba), 29–30 September 2002.
19 BHP, A 3301 B 15.2, interview with John Nkadimeng (Bonner, Harmel), 18 March 1993; BHP, B 21.4, interview with Sisulu (Harmel), 15 July 1993, discussing Milner Ntsangane and David Bopape; and B. Magubane, P. Bonner, J. Sithole, P. Delius, J. Cherry, P. Gibbs, and T. April, ‘The Turn to Armed Struggle’, in South African Democracy Education Trust (SADET), The Road to Democracy, Vol. 1, 1960–1970 (Johannesburg, SADET, 2001), p. 97.
20 Ibid., p. 98. The state’s trial of 156 defendants, eventually diminished in number, was known as the Treason Trial, and lasted from the end of 1956 to March 1961.
21 Suttner, ‘Culture(s)’; T. Karis and G.M. Carter (eds), From Protest to Challenge: A Documentary History of African Politics in South Africa 1882–1964, Vol. 3. Challenge and Violence 1953–1964 (Stanford, Hoover Institution Press, 1977), pp. 653–8; T. Lodge, Mandela, A Critical Life (e-book), pp. 58, 82, 95; A. Sampson, Mandela: The Authorized Biography (New York, Random House, 1999), p. 83, briefly, and Magubane et al., ‘The Turn to Armed Struggle’, pp. 102–5.
22 Epaphros Selbourne John Maponya in July 1962 was a secretary to Chief Lutuli: Tshwane, South African National Archives (SANA), Percy Yutar Papers (YP), Police Interrogations (PI), 385/22–6 (four volumes), 385/25 (Vol. 3), interview with E.S. Maponya, 1964, 489–521 (indexed alphabetically: hereafter PI, interview with X [coerced]).
23 PI, 780 (ms ‘p. 6’), interview with Cecil Benjamin Nduli, 1964 (coerced), naming Mafuta, Two Sticks, Ridgeview, and Mnyiasane.
24 PI, interview with Norman Dondashe [sic], 665, also Don Dashe (coerced); interview with Peter Peyise, 939 (coerced).
25 PI, Vol. 1, 14–18, interview with Isaac Bhenya (coerced), Ladysmith, Natal, 10 October 1963.
26 Which was ‘rewarding work’: C. Bundy, Govan Mbeki (Athens, University of Ohio Press, 2012), pp. 82–3, citing interview with Govan Mbeki (Bridget Thompson), early 1990s.
27 The name of the ‘booklet’ in Xhosa was Isikhokhelo ngesimo nenkqubo ye ANC. Ibid., p. 82.
28 BHP, B 9.1, interview with Wilton Mkwayi (Bonner), and B 8.1, ‘Part II’, interview with Ray Mhlaba (Harmel, Bonner), 28 October 1993.
29 Magubane et al., ‘The Turn to Armed Struggle’, p. 75.
30 PI, interview with Zizi Njikalane, p. 833, pertaining to early 1961 (coerced).
31 HP, Rivonia Trial (defence material), AD 1844, A 8.1, 8.2 (G1–G1-5, H1–H63), V. Berrange depositions, interview with Zizi Njikalane (voluntary), 1963.
32 PI, ‘Report of John Noma, Sgt., Port Elizabeth, 8 Oct. 1963’, 385/26 (Vol. 4), under ‘Witness Depositions’ adjacent to ms p. 863 (old p. no. 812).
33 SHW/SADET, A 3191 A 06 4, interview with Elias Motsoaledi (Peter Delius), 1993; Feit, Urban Revolt, p. 102.
34 BHP, B 7.2, interview with Govan Mbeki (Harmel, Bonner), 1993.
35 HP, A 3345, Ronnie Kasrils Papers (RKP), hereafter RKP, A 6.1.4.2, Moses Kotane, ‘Notes on Some Aspects of the Political Situation in South Africa’, 9 November 1961; and A 6.1.4.1, ‘Memorandum’, n.d. (late 1962); S. Ellis, ‘Nelson Mandela, the Communist Party and the Origins of Umkhonto we Sizwe’, Cold War History, 16, 1 (2016), pp. 1–18, 13, offers Harmel as the author of the second memo without evidence.
36 PI, interview with Cecil Benjamin Nduli, ms p. 5, p. 870 (old p. no. 819) (coerced). Mdwayi later testified for the state in court, but there is nothing on record to suggest he was an agent provocateur: Magubane et al., ‘The Turn to Armed Struggle’, p. 120.
37 A very complex system for voting within the M-Plan structure, with no meetings (aside from street cells), consisting of several rounds of secret ballots funnelled up and down via cut-outs, with levels of candidates, was not put into practice: P. Landau, ‘Spear: Nelson Mandela and the Revolution, South Africa 1960–64’, ms (forthcoming).
38 This and subsequent quotes from SANA, YP, 385/30/8/1, ‘Essentials of “M-Plan” Organisation’.
39 The ideological guide of the ANC. Perhaps without formal title Elias Motsoaledi occupied this role in Johannesburg – as Vuyusile Mini did in the Eastern Cape: Magubane et al., ‘The Turn to Armed Struggle’, p. 110; SHW/SADET, Oral History Project, interview with Jacob Skundla (by Pat Gibbs), 12 December 2000.
40 The Women’s League, banned with the ANC, was eliminated by the M-Plan, but in September 1960, Ruth Mompati organised tea groups as a front for women’s meetings nonetheless: Magubane et al., ‘The Turn to Armed Struggle’, pp. 75–6, and Feit, Urban Revolt, p. 135.
41 Norman Levy, The Final Prize: My Life in the Anti-Apartheid Struggle (Cape Town, South African History Online, 2011), pp. 263–4. To Ben Turok, outside the SACP Central Committee then, the move came as a surprise: Cape Town, University of the Western Cape (UWC), Mayibuye Centre (MC), Brian Bunting Papers (BBP), hereafter UWC, BBP, interview with Ben Turok (Bunting), 1973.
42 RKP, A 6.1.4.2, Moses Kotane, ‘Notes’, 9 November 1961, emphasis added.
43 Bob Hepple, personal communication, October 2011.
44 HP, Robert Hepple Papers (RHP), ‘Notes’, n.d.; BBP, interview with Ben Turok (Bunting), 1973, Tape 1 and Tape 3. Hepple was convinced he would be hanged.
45 UWC, BBP, interview with Ben Turok (Bunting), Tape 2, 1973.
46 Nelson Mandela, prison autobiography, 1974, pp. 426 (for the passage quoted), also 242, 406, 429, 442, albeit with the caution that there are clear signs of collective authorship. Available at https://www.sahistory.org.za/archive/long-walk-freedom-nelson-mandela-original-prison-manuscript, and http://www.nelsonmandela.org/images/uploads/LWOM.pdf, for the download, retrieved 22 November 2019. It is unpublished except for these citations; it is owned by the Nelson Mandela Foundation. I accessed it many times, most recently in July 2019.
47 Oxford, Rhodes House Library (RH), Howard Barrell Papers (HBP), interview with Ben Turok (Barrell), Oxford, UK, 1990.
48 P. Landau, ‘The ANC, MK, and “The Turn to Violence” (1960–1962)’, South African Historical Journal, 64, 1 (2012), pp. 538–63.
49 J. Slovo, The Unfinished Autobiography of ANC Leader Joe Slovo (Cape Town, Ocean Press, 2002), pp. 174–5.
50 L. Callinicos, Oliver Tambo: Beyond The Engeli Mountains (Cape Town, David Philip, 2004), p. 282.
51 Sisulu, ‘I Will Go’, p. 59; BHP, A 3301 B 7.2, interview with Govan Mbeki (Harmel, Bonner); and PI, interview with Cecil Benjamin Nduli (coerced), 23 August 1963, pp. 777 (ms 3) and 784 (ms 10).
52 HP, SHW/SADET, A 3191-B-12-2, interview with Shadrack Nkonyane (Tshepo Moloi), Dube, Soweto, 23 May 2002.
53 HP, Rivonia Defence, AD 1844 A 8.1, A 8.2, interview with Norman Dondashe [sic], and Peter Peyise, ms ‘p. 665’, may be copied police deposition (coerced), 1963.
54 J. Modise, ‘25 Years of MK’, Dawn, ‘Souvenir Issue: 25 Years of MK’ (Lusaka, ANC, 1986), quoted in Magubane et al., ‘The Turn to Armed Struggle’, p. 87. This is the clearest indication of an ANC sabotage unit predating MK.
55 BHP, B 7.2, interview with Govan Mbeki (Harmel, Bonner), Port Elizabeth, 28 October 1993.
56 PI, interview with Norman Dondashe [sic] cited above.
57 ‘General Strike: Statement by Nelson Mandela on Behalf of the National Action Council Following the Stay-at-Home in May 1961’ (n.d.), available at http://db.nelsonmandela.org/speeches/pub_view.asp?pg=item&ItemID=NMS008&txtstr=strike, retrieved 10 September 2019.
58 Anon., ‘Chris Hani, A Drawing by a Close Political Activist’, Dawn, ‘Souvenir Issue: 25 Years of MK’ (Lusaka, ANC, 1986), pp. 38–9.
59 Mandela in 1974 continued: ‘and to use it [coercion] even if on a specific issue the majority of the people are against us’, prison autobiography, p. 328; Sisulu, ‘I Will Go Singing’, p. 128.
60 RH, HBP, Box 5, Shadrack Maphumulo’s ms autobiography, forward by Joe Pillay, also as MSS Afr. S. 2151 5/1, pp. 185–6.
61 SHW/SADET, A 3191 H 25 (37-1), interview with Solomon Musi, ca.1990, a child in 1961.
62 T. Lodge, Sharpeville: An Apartheid Massacre and Its Consequences (Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2011), p. 197.
63 Johannesburg, South African Historical Association (SAHA), Julie Frederikse Papers, AL 2460.A19.7 (JFP), interview with J. Seremane (by Frederikse), 1989, sic.
64 SHW/SADET, A 3191 B79 1993-B, interview with Denis Goldberg, audio, 42:14; and HBP, interview with Denis Goldberg (by Barrell), 1990.
65 Only after Govan Mbeki visited again, in 1961, was the old structure replaced with zones, according to PI, interview with Mahlathini Ngcobo (1963; coerced, no pagination).
66 SANA, YP, 385/30/8/1, ‘Essentials of “M-Plan” Organisation’, three pages, no date (after August 1962), and PI, interview with Cecil Nduli, 1963, p. 775–7 and 778–785 (citing ‘p. 12’ interior pagination); and interview with Mahlathini Ngcobo, 1963, no pagination.
67 Ibid., PI, interview with E.S. Maponya, 1963, pp. 489–521. Maponya was Lutuli’s secretary in 1962, after his Emergency detention (ms p. 3); and Magubane et al., ‘The Turn to Armed Struggle’, citing interview with Eric Mtshali, p. 98.
68 PI, interview with Cecil Nduli, 1963, ms p. 7, and pp. 872–3.
69 Ibid, p. 872–3.
70 PI, interview with Cecil Nduli, p. 883. Confirmed in interview with Zizi Njikalane, p. 833 (see note 30); and Feit, Urban Revolt, 115–9. Re Steward Rawala: Korsten, with African and ‘Coloured’ families and gangs, according to Wilton Mkwayi, defied M-Plan organisation: BHP, B 9.2, interview with Wilton Mkwayi, 22 October 1993; Magubane et al., ‘The Turn to Armed Struggle’, p. 54; and, SANA, YP, defence material, interview with Peter Novombu, 1963, trial testimony, originally in Afrikaans he called malao or ‘Boesman’.
71 Ibid.; I. Naidoo, Island in Chains: Ten Years on Robben Island, Prisoner 885/63 (London, Penguin Random House, 2012), e-book.
72 PI, coerced interview with Sampson Nowala, p. 840; and with Cecil Benjamin Nduli (see note 30); and interview with Zizi Njikalane (see notes 70 and 68).
73 Ibid.; Feit, Urban Revolt, p. 119, accepts a date of April 1961 for these Durban events, solely on Njikalane’s testimony.
74 Magubane et al., ‘The Turn to Armed Struggle’, p. 118, citing SHW/SADET, interview with Cecil Magqabi (Brown Maaba), 29–30 September 2002. The visit was late in 1961.
75 HP, Rivonia Trial (defence material), AD 1846 A 6 A 11, Box 2, F-21. It is possible that Mdubi is confusing MK with the ANC, but the context suggests not.
76 BHP, B 10.2, interview with Andrew Mlangeni (Bonner, Harmel), 1993.
77 Suttner, The ANC Underground.
78 SANA, YP, 385/33/35, R-56, transcript, Radio Liberation, 26 June 1961, p. 3. In this speech, Mandela said, ‘The struggle is my life’.
79 Ibid.
80 Amy ‘Bubbles’ Reitstein, later Thornton, SACP member, related a story to David Smith in support, but it has too many loose ends: Smith, Young Mandela, p. 199.
81 R.T. Vinson and B. Carton, ‘Albert Luthuli’s Private Struggle: How an Icon of Peace Came to Accept Sabotage in South Africa’, Journal of African History, 59, 1 (2018), pp. 69–96.
82 University of Witwatersrand, HP, Gail Gerhart Papers, A 3049-B2-Joe Matthews, interview with Joe G. Matthews (by Gerhart); most recently R.T. Vinson, Albert Luthuli (Athens, Ohio, Ohio University Press, 2018).
83 Sisulu, ‘I Will Go Singing’, 128.
84 BHP, B 5.1, interview with Henry ‘Squire’ Mokgothi, 22 February 1994, and RKP, A 6.1.4.1, ‘Memorandum’, no author, n.d. (late 1962).
85 J. Cherry and P. Gibbs, ‘The Liberation Struggle in the Eastern Cape’, in SADET, The Road to Democracy in South Africa, Vol. 2, 1970–1980 (Tshwane, Unisa Press, 2007), p. 573, citing interview with Alven Bennie (by Gibbs) and interview with Sipho Hina (by Brown Maaba).
86 HBP, interview with Mac Maharaj (by Barrell), 19 November 1990; Nelson Mandela, ‘Speech of the Deputy President of the African National Congress, Nelson Mandela, at the Rally to Relaunch the South African Communist Party’, 29 July 1990, available at http://db.nelsonmandela.org/speeches/pub_view.asp?pg=item&ItemID=NMS049&txtstr=communism, accessed 7 July 2019.
87 Soske, Internal Frontiers, pp. 175, 207, 223.
88 Hilary Lynd in her research in communication with this author in the records of the Afro-Asian Solidarity Committee (AASC), a Politburo-level committee in the former Soviet Union, featuring Dmitry Dolidze, who liaised with ANC representatives abroad. The AASC was a powerful body, different from ‘Friendship’ committees, and was subordinate not to the government (in the USSR’s dual structure) but to the Party, and hence to Boris Pomonarev and others already on the Soviet Central Committee. Dolidze wrote to the Central Committee requesting funding for a writers’ conference ‘trying to impress them with the importance of the South African delegation’, in Lynd’s summary. ‘RGANI’ files at the Russian National Archives, GARF f. R9540 o. 2 d. 40 ll. 68–79, translated as ‘Reports on work with foreign delegations and transcripts of conversations held in the Committee’), delo (folder) 47, Dolidze transmitting a request from Cairo, 28 February 1962, Mzwai Piliso to AASC and Dolidze. Thanks to Lynd for her transcription.
89 M. Mathebula, The Backroom Boy: Andrew Mlangeni’s Story (Johannesburg, Wits University Press, 2017), esp. pp. 3, 13.
90 Emerging in Wits, HP, ‘The State v. Wilton Mkwayi et al.’, including Mac Maharaj, the so-called Little Rivonia Trial transcript (18 November to 15 December 1964).
91 I. Filatova and A. Davidson, The Hidden Thread: Russia and South Africa in the Soviet Era (London, Jonathan Ball, 2013).
92 S. Ndlovu, ‘The ANC in Exile, 1960–1970’, in SADET, The Road to Democracy, Vol. 2, p. 411–78, interview with Henry Fazzie, p. 439, emphasis added.
93 Tshwane, SANA, YP, PI, interview with E.S. Maponya, 1963, p. 481, ms 21, stamped 509.
94 A dynamic noted by Ellis, ‘Nelson Mandela’, p. 14.
95 Interview with Cecil Benjamin Nduli.
96 Magubane et al., ‘The Turn to Armed Struggle’, interview with Andrew Masondo, p. 111, n236; BHP, B 13, interview with Billy Nair (Bonner, Harmel), 13 June 1994.
97 Wits, HP, BHP, A 3301 B 8.1, interview with Raymond Mhlaba (Bonner and Harmel), 27 October 1993.
98 Wits, HP, BHP, A 3301 F 13, interview with Govan Mbeki (p. 21 of transcript).
99 PI, interview with Bruno Mtolo, p. 193.
100 PI, interview with Zizi Njikalane (coerced account), p. 833, pertaining to early 1961.
101 At one Mtwalo Inkaba’s home: PI, interview with Joseph Kati in Port Elizabeth, p. 145; interview with Norman Dondashe [sic] (coerced).
102 Landau, ‘Spear’.
103 PI, interview with Norman Dondashe, p. 145.
104 Working under Norman Don Dashe were ‘Joxo, young Mkaba and Thomas … Dubasi, Ngqondela, and P[e]letse’. Magqabi eventually left to train, and ‘Magqabi’s group were joined on the way to Lobatsi by Vuyusile Mini’. Ibid., and Magubane et al., ‘The Turn to Armed Struggle’, pp. 114–19.
105 Landau, ‘The Turn to Violence’.
106 SHW/SADET, A 3191, A 06 4, interview with Elias Motsoaledi (Peter Delius), 1993; PI, interview with Bruno Mtolo, 1963, p. 193.
107 Oxford, RH, HBP, interview with Bill Anderson (by H. Barrell), 8 April 1991.
108 University of Witwatersrand, HP, RHP, ms notes for Hepple’s memoir, Young Man with a Red Tie: A Memoir of Mandela and the Failed Revolution, 1960–1963 (Johannesburg, Jacana, 2013).
109 N. Mandela, Long Walk to Freedom (Boston, Little, Brown, 1994), p. 250.