The ‘Native Question’ in Australia Exploring the Anglo-Australian Humanitarian Response, 1904–1939

ABSTRACT

In the first thirty years of the twentieth century the ‘native question’ loomed large in the heart of the British Empire in the context of heightened imperialism in Africa. This reverberated in Australia in the context of the Commonwealth government gaining Dominionhood, making contributions to the League of Nations as an independent mandatory power, and becoming responsible for the administration of the tropical North. A local humanitarian network developed encouraged by what they saw as more humane ideas around ‘Native’ administration emanating from the League and promoted by the Anti-Slavery and Aborigines’ Protection Society. This alignment provides an opportunity to explore relations between empire and nation in connection to this question at a formative moment for both. In particular, it points to the tension created by the vernacularisation of British humanitarian ideals into an advanced settler colonial society and the reach and limits of a humanitarian settlement in the local context.

KEYWORDS:

• Aborigines
• Africa
• Anti-Slavery
• Australia
• humanitarianism
• protection
• trusteeship

Note

Throughout this article I have used speech marks around ‘native' and ‘native question’ to denaturalise the terms. Closely associated with ‘white man's burden’ these were dominant constructions used by colonial/imperial authorities to talk about Indigenous people as problems for and to the colonial order and then promote various forms of coloniser solutions. Language such as ‘native/s' and ‘the natives’ are objectifying terms which have the effect of othering Indigenous people and ultimately enable such colonising practices. The ‘native question’ is a leading exemplar of this process.

Disclosure Statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Notes

1 Bennett to Mr Buxton, 1936.

2 Shreuder and Ward, eds., Australia’s Empire, 11.

3 Lester and Dussart, Colonisation and the Origins of Humanitarian Governance; Robert, Hannah Paved With Good Intentions; Furphy and Nettlebeck, “Imagining Protection in the Antipodean Colonies,” 3–19; Lydon, “The Bloody Skirt of Settlement,” 46–70; Lydon, Imperial Emotions; Edmonds and Laidlaw, “The British Government is Now Awakening”; Edmonds, “Elite and “Shadow Networks”,” 1–24; Edmonds, “Collecting Looerryminer’s ‘Testimony’,” 13–33; Edmonds, “Activism in the Antipodes,” 31–59; Laidlaw, “Indigenous Interlocutors”; Heartfield, The Aborigines Protection Society; McLisky, “Due Observance of Justice,” 57–66; Laidlaw, “Integrating Metropolitan, Colonial and Imperial Histories,” 75–91; O’Brien, “Humanitarianism and Reparation in Colonial Australia”; Furphy and Nettlebeck, eds., Aboriginal Protection and its Intermediaries.

4 Curthoys and Mitchell, Taking Liberty, 373.

5 Holland, Breaking the Silence.

6 Grant, “Anti-Slavery, Refugee Relief,” 5.

7 Ibid., 6.

8 Grant, A Civilised Savagery.

9 Lydon and Paisley, “Australia and Anti-Slavery,” 3.

10 Lydon, Anti-Slavery and Australia.

11 Silverstein, Governing Natives; “Indirect Rule in Australia,” 90–105.

12 Silverstein, “Indirect Rule,” 99–101.

13 McNab, “Herman Merivale and the Native Question, 361.

14 Edmonds and Laidlaw, “The British Government is Now Awakening,” 38–57.

15 Nettlebeck, Indigenous Rights.

16 Grant, A Civilised Savagery, 40; Grant, “Christian Critics of Empire”.

17 Grant, A Civilised Savagery, 9.

18 Pedersen, The Guardians, 24.

19 Grant, A Civilised Savagery, 28.

20 Pedersen, The Guardians, 25.

21 Grant, A Civilised Savagery, 28.

22 Mair, Native Policies in Africa, 12.

23 Grant, A Civilised Savagery, 136.

24 Miers, Slavery in the Twentieth Century.

25 Pedersen, The Guardians, 24.

26 Grant, A Civilised Savagery, 140.

27 Ibid.

28 de Costa, “Human Rights,” 64.

29 Lugard, “154. Address at the Reception to Dominion Premiers,” 213–215.

30 Pitt-Rivers, The Clash of Culture, 25.

31 Notes of Deputation to the Anti-Slavery Society, 1927.

32 Bevernage, “The Making of the Congo Question”.

33 WEB Roth, Royal Commission on the Condition of Natives.

34 Biskup, Not Slaves Not Citizens, 56.

35 Curthoys and Mitchell, Taking Liberty, 385–404.

36 “The Native Question”.

37 Bennett, The Australian Aboriginal, 63.

38 Parliamentary Debate, The Natives of Western Australia, Britain, cc 1298–321.

39 Ibid.

40 Holland, Breaking the Silence, 47.

41 Ibid.

42 Sunday Times, 3.

43 Ibid.

44 WA Record, 14.

45 Paisley, Lone Protestor, 17, 19.

46 “The Native Question”.

47 Lydon, “Christian Heroes”; Lydon, “Bloody Skirt”; Ganter, “The Power of Protectors”.

48 “Cruel to Blacks”; “England Has Worst Scandal”; “Australian Blacks Held”; “A Russian View”

49 “West Australian Blacks,” 7.

50 Holland, Breaking the Silence, 80–82.

51 Draft Report of Committee, 1911.

52 Travers-Buxton to Andrew Fisher, 9/10/1914, Protection of Aboriginals.

53 Royal Commission to Inquire into the Treatment of Natives, 1908.

54 “Treatment of Natives”.

55 “Murder of Blacks, Police Directly Implicated”.

56 Wilson and O’Brien, “To Infuse an Universal Terror”.

57 Secretary Home Affairs to John Harris, NAA: A431, 1948/273.

58 Condition of Aborigines, 11/5/1927, 3.

59 Holland, Breaking the Silence, 98–107.

60 Notes of a Deputation to the Anti-Slavery Society.

61 Holland, Breaking the Silence, 21.

62 Association for the Protection of Native Races, Annual Report.

63 “A Plea on Behalf Of the Australian Aborigines,” 1932.

64 Cabanes, The Great War, 5.

65 CEC LEfroy, “Noble-Hearted Race”.

66 Darian-Smith, Elder, and Paisley, “Are We Internationally Minded,” 405–411.

67 Paisley, Loving Protection?; Woollacott, To Try Her Fortune.

68 Gorman, The Emergence of International Society, 23.

69 Thompson, “Making a Mandate”.

70 Ibid., 72.

71 Report of a Deputation to Senator Sir GF Pearce.

72 De Costa, Human Rights, 67.

73 Ibid.

74 Elkin, “Native Education,” 461.

75 Pedersen, The Guardians, 95.

76 Bennett, Christison.

77 Ibid., 99.

78 Bennett, The Condition of the Aborigines of Australia, 16.

79 Ibid.

80 Bennett, The Australian Aboriginal, 63.

81 Lugard, “154. Address at the Reception to Dominion Premiers,” 213–215.

82 Ibid.

83 Britain administered an area with 12 million Indigenous peoples in five mainland territories which constituted 99% of the total population of these areas. The Report of the Commission on the Closer Union of the Eastern and Central African Dependencies, 1929, 19.

84 Lugard, “154. Address at the Reception to Dominion Premiers,” 213.

85 Pitt-Rivers, The Clash of Cultures, 27.

86 Robert Maxon, Struggle For Kenya.

87 The Report of the Commission on the Closer Union of the Eastern and Central African Dependencies, 1929.

88 The idea of ‘closer union’ was advocated by the white settlers who lobbied for a federation of Kenya, Uganda and Tanganika. Although this was favoured by the conservative commissioner, Edward Hilton Young, it was ultimately outvoted in favour of the status quo.

89 The Report of the Commission on the Closer Union of the Eastern and Central African Dependencies, 1929, 40.

90 Maxon, Struggle For Kenya.

91 The Report of the Commission on the Closer Union of the Eastern and Central African Dependencies, 1929.

92 Ibid.

93 Ibid., 41.

94 Bennett, The Australian Aboriginal.

95 Bennett, “A Native Policy For Australia”.

96 Bennett, Australian Aboriginal as a Human Being, 87.

97 Porter, Critics of Empire.

98 Bennett, The Condition of the Aborigines, 16.

99 Paisley, “Echo of Black Slavery,” 115–121.

100 Bennett, “Whites and Natives: Allegations of Slavery,” The West Australian, 17 May 1932.

101 Bennett to Rischbieth, 6/3/1932.

102 Pedersen, Susan, “The Maternalist Moment”; “National Bodies, Unspeakable Acts” and: Paddle, S, “The Limits of Sympathy”.

103 Forclaz, Humanitarian Imperialism, 94.

104 Holland, Just Relations, 92–131.

105 Miers, Slavery in the Twentieth Century.

106 Holland, “Whatever Her Race,” 129–152.

107 Jamieson-Williams, “The League of Nations”.

108 Mary Bennett, Allegations of Slavery, 1932.

109 Morris and Read, Indirect Rule and the Search for Justice.

110 AO Neville to Minister Kitson, 19/6/1933, State Archives of Western Australia, AN1/7, Department of Native Affairs and Native Welfare, Acc 993, 116/1932, Allegations of Mrs Mary Bennett in regard to native slavery, inadequate reserves and traffic in native women.

111 Forclaz, Humanitarian Imperialism, 97–105.

112 Edith Jones, “The Australian Aborigine Woman: is She a Slave? Rischbieth Papers, NLA, MS2004/12/314.

113 Mary Bennett, “The Aboriginal Mother,” 1933, Elkin Papers, University of Sydney Archives, box 23, item 8.

114 “White’s Treatment of Aborigines,” 1933.

115 Paisley, “Don’t Tell England.”

116 Dewar, The Black War in Arnhem Land.

117 Holland, Breaking the Silence, 241–242.

118 Haebich, For Their Own Good, 324–325.

119 Mr Neville to the Secretary of the Premier’s Department, 24/11/1934, Bennett, Allegations of Slavery.

120 Moseley Royal Commission Report, 258.

121 Ibid., 270.

122 Western Australia. Parliament 1935, Report of the Royal Commissioner Appointed to Investigate, Report and Advise upon Matters in Relation to the Condition and Treatment of Aborigines, Perth, 5.

123 Holland, Breaking the Silence, 155.

124 Bennett, “Native Women as Chattels,” 1936.

125 Holland, Just Relations, 165–195.

126 John Harris to JA Lyons, 11/8/1938, NAA, A431, 1948/273.

127 John Harris to JA Lyons, 6/3/1936, NAA, A431, 1948/273.

128 AO Neville to the Minister for the North West, 21/12/1939, State Archives of Western Australia, AN1/7, Department of Native Affairs and Native Welfare, The Anti-Slavery and Aborigines’ Protection Society – general correspondence.

129 Holland, Just Relations, 350.

130 Thompson, “Making a Mandate”.

131 Nettlebeck, Indigenous Rights, 168.

132 “Care of Aborigines,” 10.

133 Holland, Breaking the Silence, 237.

134 Ibid., 259–262.

135 Ibid. See also McGregor, “Disputing the Territory”.

136 Jacobs, Mister Neville, 190.

137 Auty, “Western Australian Courts of Native Affairs”.

138 Wise, “Elkin, Adolphus Peter”.

139 Thomson, Recommendations of Policy, 3–6.

140 Ibid.

141 Elkin, Native Education, 460.

142 Elkin, “Australian Aboriginal and White Relations”.

143 Holland, Breaking the Silence, 263.

144 Lester and Skinner, “Humanitarianism and Empire,” 731.

145 McGregor, “The Necessity of Britishness,” 494.

146 Shreuder and Ward, eds., Australia’s Empire, 11.

147 Report of the East Africa Commission presented to the British parliament by the Secretary of State for the Colonies, 1925, 22.

148 “Dr Roth’s Report,” 2.

149 Forclaz, Humanitarian Imperialism, 80.