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Articles

CAPITALISM IN TIMES OF CRISIS

Danish Industrialists and the State, c. 1910—1940

Pages 552-571 | Published online: 22 May 2019
 

Abstract

This article investigates how Danish industrialists responded to the rise of the modern state in the decades up until the Second World War, a period in which many of the basic principles of liberal capitalism were called into question, and in which the relationship between the state and the economy underwent major changes in all Western societies. It argues that the industrialists remained firm believers in classical liberalism and, on that ground, opposed growing state intervention as a slide towards socialism. The article has an emphasis on their reactions to calls for social policy initiatives, and it shows that the industrialists typically opposed such initiatives, either on pure ideological grounds or as conflicting with the economic competitiveness of Danish firms. When accommodation to selected demands for a stronger state did take place, it was typically in periods of crisis, the most important being the years just after the First World War. The interwar years did, however, see some approbation to increasing state intervention in the economy, and in the 1930s the idea of cooperation with the state entered their rhetoric. Thus, the article argues that the rhetoric and narratives gradually changed, while the ideological core did not.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author.

Primary sources

Archives of the Industrial Council, The Danish National Archives.Rigsdagstidende, Folketingets Forhandlinger.Tidsskrift for Industri, 1910-1940.

Notes

1 Swenson, Capitalists against Markets.

2 Polanyi, The Great Transformation, 231–56.

3 Blyth, Great Transformations.

4 E.g. Eichengreen, The European Economy; Winkler, Organisierter Kapitalismus.

5 Hansen, På glidebanen til den bitre ende.

6 The key contribution on Danish industry in this period is Thomsen, Industri, stat og samfund. This book covers the major actors, but it does not focus on the ideas and narratives as covered in this article. The same is true for a more recent contribution that focuses on a single industrialist: Andersen and Jacobsen, Foss. Boje and Kallestrup, Marked, erhvervsliv og stat, is also based on studies in the archives of the Industrial Council, but it covers the debates over competition law and is therefore also driven by other questions. The literature on the financial and commercial capitalists is also rich; see, for instance, Lange, Stormogulen; Iversen, Udsyn.

7 The methodological focus on experiences and expectations is inspired by the theoretical categories of German conceptual history; see Koselleck, ‘“Erfahrungsraum” und “Erwartungshorizont”’. The importance of narratives as an object of historical analysis has been stressed by many authors; for a business history perspective, see Hansen, ‘Business History’; Hansen, ‘From Finance Capitalism to Financialization’. In this article, narratives are viewed as those visions that bridge experiences and expectations and thus give a sense of direction and meaning to a group of actors.

8 For the development of Danish industrial sectors, see Johansen, Industriens vækst og vilkår 1870–1973; Hyldtoft, ‘Den anden industrielle revolution’. For European comparisons, see Sylla and Toniolo, Patterns of European Industrialization.

9 Thomsen, Industri, stat og samfund, 133 (‘oplyst landbovælde’).

10 Iversen, ‘Co-operative Liberalism’.

11 Andersen and Jacobsen, Foss, 208ff.

12 Nevers, ‘Industrirådet og den store verden’.

13 Foss, Danmark som Industriland.

14 Pedersen, When China Awakens. For the comparatively high number of Danish multinational companies in the early 20th century, see Boje, Danmark og multinationale virksomheder før 1950.

15 Foss, Danmark som Industriland, 27: ‘Men der vil sikkert gaa lang Tid, inden det store, store Flertal saaledes omdannes, at de distancerer Europa og Nordamerika’.

16 Foss, Danmark som Industriland, 30: ‘den højst uheldige Virkning, at den undergraver Spareevnen og sætter Præmie paa Forbruget’.

17 Foss, Danmark som Industriland, 33–5.

18 The conflict between ‘small’ and ‘big’ industrialists is treated in Boje and Kallestrup, Marked, erhvervsliv og stat; Fink, Storindustri og middelstand.

19 Cf. Petersen et al., Frem mod socialhjælpsstaten.

20 This section builds on Nevers, ‘The First World War’. There is also a growing interest within welfare state studies on the impact of ward; see, for instance, Obinger, Petersem, and Starke, Warfare and Welfare.

21 Winter, ‘Introduction to Volume II’, 2.

22 Godfrey, Capitalism at War.

23 Cf. Thomsen, Reguleringspolitikken i Danmark; Schultz, I én og samme båd; Jørgensen, Studier i samspillet mellem stat og erhvervsliv under 1. verdenskrig.

24 E.g. Boje and Nevers, ‘Kapitalismens forandringer’.

25 See, for instance, Sørensen, Den store krig, 294ff.

26 Rigsdagstidende, Folketingets Forhandlinger 1916–1917, 853: ‘Hvis man tror, at de Erfaringer, der i saa Henseende er indhøstede, kan forsvinde sporløst efter Krigen, og at de Bestræbelser, som af Statsmagten er udfoldede, vil blive lagt i Skuffen og Nøglen drejet om, saa tager man Fejl’.

27 Nevers, ‘Landbrugsleder og liberalist’.

28 Andersen and Jacobsen, Foss, 269–70.

29 Cf. ‘Staten og Erhvervslivet’, Tidsskrift for Industri 1917, 244.

30 Hansen, Økonomisk vækst i Danmark, 9–14.

31 Tidsskrift for Industri, 1919, 60–1: ‘Den russiske Arbejderklasse er altsaa bleven Ejer af de industrielle Foretagender. Men foretagenderne smuldrer hen, Arbejdsløsheden vokser, Hungersnøden i Storbyerne bliver værre og værre, og selve Arbejderklassen smelter ind og flygter tilbage til Landsbyen’.

32 E.g. Foss, ‘Det internationale socialpolitiske Arbejde’, Tidsskrift for Industri 1919, 206.

33 Foss, ‘Det internationale socialpolitiske Arbejde’, Tidsskrift for Industri 1919. See also Foss, ‘Socialpolitiske Reformer’, Tidsskrift for Industri 1919.

34 ‘Forslag til lov om Arbejdstid for de ved Industri, Haandværk og lignende Virksomheder beskæftigede Arbejdere’, Archives of the Industrial Council.

35 ‘Udkast til Indstilling fra Arbejdstidskommissionens Mindretal’, Archive of the Industrial Council: ‘Kravet om Indførelsen af en Arbejdsdag for alle paa 8 timer er en ren og skær Agitationsformel, hvis Berettigelse aldrig er bleven bevist. Der foreligger intet Bevis for, at det at Arbejde i 8 Timer skulde være det bedste, og at det ikke lige saa godt kunde være Idealet at arbejde 7 eller 9 Timer daglig. Tværtimod maa man antage, at Arbejdstidens Længde bør rette sig efter Arbejdets Art og ikke fastsættes ens for al Slags Arbejde’.

36 ‘Arbejdernes Andel i Udbyttet’, Archive of the Industrial Council: ‘Arbejderen bliver interesseret i den Virksomhed, hvori han arbejder og vil ikke længere føle sig som en Lønslave, der tvunget af Omstændighederne har solgt sin Arbejdskraft for en vis Tid til en vis Pris’.

37 Joint statement, February 1925, Archive of the Industrial Council.

38 Boje and Kallestrup, Marked, erhvervsliv og stat.

39 ‘Den engelske Industris Stilling til de nye Reformkrav’, Tidsskrift for Industri 1919, 217–19: ‘dyrt og kan aldrig naa til den Elasticitet i Organisation, som er nødvendig, ikke mindst naar det gælder Produktion for Eksport’.

40 Letter to members of the Industrial Council, 22 November 1921, Archive of the Industrial Council.

41 E.g. ‘Industrien og Krisen’, Tidsskrift for Industri 1927, 27.

42 ‘Industriraadet og Deflationspolitikken’, Tidsskrift for Industri 1928, 89–92: ‘Naar Udlandet møder vor Industri med høje Toldskranker, maa vi svare med samme Mønt ikke for at afspærre Danmark fra Udlandet, men for at bryde de Afspærringer, der holder vore Varer ude. Adgangen til det danske Marked maa ske under samme Vilkår som de, under hvilke vore Varer kan faa Adgang til Udlandet’

43 Skov, Den nye tid, 125–30.

44 ‘Industrien og Samfundet’, Tidsskrift for Industri 1929, 157–9: ‘At Staten ikke desmindre har sine og endda store Opgaver overfor Industrien, vil ingen benægte. Det er altsaa blot beklageligt, at den ikke var hjemme, den gang Industrien i sin største Nød søgte om Hjælp og Bistand mod alle de Tab, som nu hele Samfundet har været med til at bære’.

45 ‘Direktør Overgaards Tale paa Lands-Industrimødet’, Tidsskrift for Industri 1930, 32–7: ‘Denne Lov kaldes Trustloven, men dens virkelige Navn er Socialiseringsloven, fordi dens egentlige Virkning vil blive en Socialisering af Danmarks Erhvervsliv’.

46 Resolution (Landsindustrimødet) 28 January 1930, Archive of the Industrial Council.

47 Chr. Overgaard: ‘Industriforeningens og Industriraadets Virksomhed i det forløbne Aar’, Tidsskrift for Industri 1931, 80–98

48 Maier, Recasting Bourgeois Europe, 578. For the Danish case, this complicated web is more thoroughly described in the two chapters on business and government (by Jørgen Fink and Flemming Just) in Knudsen, Dansk Forvaltningshistorie, 271–448.

49 ‘Industrien og Krisen: Udtalelser af Industriraadet’, Tidsskrift for Industri 1930, 225–6.

50 Meyer, ‘Den danske Industri og Krisesituationen’, 97–101: ‘Det er her af den største Betydning, at vi forstaar at finde de rette Former, saaledes at Sundheden i den industrielle Produktion bevares. Statslige Monpoldannelser og Oprettelse af Industrier, der alene baseres paa Statsforsorg og er fuldkommen afhængige af Statsmagten, vil hverken betyde en sund eller holdbar Udvidelse af det danske Produktionsomraade’.

51 Meyer, ‘Den danske Industri og Krisesituationen’, 101: ‘at grundvolden for det økonomiske Fremskridt, som har hævet Befolkningen op til en Levestandard, der for faa Slægtled siden var forbeholdt en snever Overklasse, er at søge i Borgernes Initiativ og Borgernes Ejendomsret’.

52 ‘Planøkonomi og Socialisering’, Tidsskrift for Industri 1934, 145–7: ‘Den Kultus, der for Tiden drives med det mere eller mindre mystiske Begreb: ”Planøkonomi”, vil en Dag blive afløst af bitter Fortrydelse’.

53 Birch, Under Højkapitalismen.

54 ‘Memorandum angaaende Forslag til Lov om Ændringer i Ulykkeforsikringsloven’ (1937), Archive of the Industrial Council (The Social-Political Committee).

55 Letter to ‘Det af Folketinget nedsatte Udvalg angaaende Forslag til Lov om Ferie med Løn’ (1938), Archive of the Industrial Council (The Social-Political Committee).

56 August Holm: ‘Industriens Stilling’, Tidsskrift for Industri 1936, 81–6: ‘Industriraadet har følt det som en Hovedopgave at være Mellemled mellem det industrielle Erhverv og Statsmyndighederne ved Forhandling om Industriens store Fællesinteresser […] vi har den Tilfredsstillelse, at Industriraadet gennem de 25 Aar, det har bestaaet, har kunnet have et nært og frugtbart Samarbejde med Statsadministrationen under skiftende Regeringer’.

57 E.g. ‘Industriforeningens of Industriraadets Virksomhed i 1937–38’, section on ‘Arbejdsgiverforeningens og Industriraadets social-politiske Udvalg’, Tidsskrift for Industri 1938, 114–15.

58 August Holm, ‘Den industripolitiske Situation’, Tidsskrift for Industri 1940, 69–74.

59 For industrialists in the postwar period, see Larsen, Produktivitet, vækst og velfærd; Larsen, ‘Organisationsmenneske med et sociale ansigt’.

60 Fear, ‘German Capitalism’, 141–62.

Additional information

Notes on contributors

Jeppe Nevers

Jeppe Nevers, PhD, is Professor of Modern History at the University of Southern Denmark. He did his doctoral work on the history of Danish democracy, and his subsequent project was on languages of industry and productivity in the age of industrialization. He has also written on a range of other topics, and is currently working on transformations of capitalism since the early 20th century. Trained as a historian at the University of Southern Denmark, he has been a visitor at the University of Freiburg, at Harvard University, and at the University of Oxford, and participated in several international research projects. Address: Department of History, University of Southern Denmark, Campusvej 55, 5230 Odense M, Denmark. [email: [email protected]]

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