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ABSTRACT
The disintegration processes in the Soviet Union, in particular the emergence of independence movements in the Baltic States, posed a difficult challenge for Finland. This article examines the Finnish policy regarding the situation in the Baltic States in 1988–1991 and analyses the evolution of the views of the Finnish leadership based on recently declassified records in the personal collection of President Mauno Koivisto and the archives of Finland’s Ministry of Foreign Affairs. The Finnish leadership’s point of departure was that the political developments in the Baltics should proceed in a controlled manner, without endangering the stability of the Soviet Union. Finland therefore avoided supporting the Baltic independence movement publicly, but did support it in the form of practical co-operation. The article shows that the change in Finnish Baltic policy was the result of a shift in power relations within the Soviet Union, after the failed coup attempt in Moscow in August 1991. Finland restored diplomatic relations with the Baltic States before the Soviet Union recognized the independence of its former republics. This episode paved way for the initiative to discard the FCMA treaty which had tied Finland to the Soviet sphere of influence.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author.
Notes
1. Aunesluoma and Rainio-Niemi, “Neutrality as identity?,” 53–54.
2. Kansikas, “Dismantling the Soviet Security System,” 4–5.
3. Made, “Finland and the Baltic Question,” 133.
4. On Kekkonen’s visit to Estonia in 1964 see Lilja and Raig, Urho Kekkonen ja Viro, 93–219.
5. An extreme example of the Finns’ cautiousness was the action of Jaakko Hallamaa, the Finnish ambassador to Moscow. In 1980 Finnish Foreign Ministry asked Hallamaa to report about the developments in the Baltic Republics but he refused, considering the issue too sensitive to be reported. Suomi, Umpeutuva latu, 658–659.
6. Graf and Roiko-Jokela, Vaarallinen Suomi; Roiko-Jokela and Heikki, Virallista politiikkaa, epävirallista kanssakäymistä; and Made, ”Finland and the Baltic Question.”
7. Aunesluoma and Rainio-Niemi, “Neutrality as identity?”; Aunesluoma and Uutela, “In Germany’s Footsteps”; Kansikas, “Dismantling the Soviet Security System”; Rentola, “When to Move?”; and Ritvanen, “Operaatio Pax”.
8. Rausmaa, Kyllä kulttuurin nimissä.
9. Metsalo, Vallanvaihto suomalaissilmin.
10. Aho, Pääministeri; Blomberg, Vakauden kaipuu; Koivisto, Historian tekijät. English version Koivisto, Witness to History; Savisaar, Viron vaaran vuodet; and Väyrynen, On muutoksen aika.
11. Kasekamp, History of the Baltic States, 160–162.
12. Metsalo, Vallanvaihto suomalaissilmin, 38–40.
13. Kasekamp, History of the Baltic States, 162–163.
14. Jaakko Kaurinkoski’s report from Leningrad to the Ministry for Foreign Affairs, 20 April 1988. Ulkoasiainministeriön arkisto [Archives of the Ministry for Foreign Affairs of Finland; hereafter abbreviated as UMA], 21.50 NLO, Sisäpolitiikka Baltian tilanne/Suomi 1988; Rausmaa, Kyllä kulttuurin nimissä, 43.
15. Ministry for Foreing Affairs cable MOS-73 from 26 April 1988 to the Finnish embassy to Moscow. UMA 21.50 NLO, Sisäpolitiikka Baltian tilanne/Suomi 1988.
16. Aarno Karhilo’s report from Moscow to the Ministry for Foreign Affairs, 25 May 1988. UMA 21.50 NLO, Sisäpolitiikka Baltian tilanne/Suomi 1988.
17. Director General of Political Department of the Finnish Foreign Ministry Jaakko Blomberg’s memo 791, 11 October 1988. UMA 21.50 NLO, Sisäpolitiikka Baltian tilanne/Suomi 1988.
18. Koivisto, Historian tekijät, 267.
19. President Koivisto’s chief of staff Jaakko Kalela’s memo, 22 November 1988. Kansallisarkisto, Mauno Koiviston arkisto, ulkopolitiikka [The National Archives of Finland, Mauno Koivisto Records, foreign policy; hereafter abbreviated as MKA], box 36; Koivisto, Historian tekijät, 268.
20. Since the Estonian language is so closely related to Finnish, the Estonians were able to illegally watch Finnish television. This was a constant problem for the Estonian Communist Party leadership, which claimed on a number of occasions that Finnish broadcasts were deliberately causing difficulties in Estonia. See Graf and Roiko-Jokela, Vaarallinen Suomi.
21. Koivisto, Historian tekijät, 45–46.
22. Mauno Koivisto’s handwritten memo on a meeting with Felix Karasev, 12 January 1989. MKA, box 37.
23. Rausmaa, Kyllä kulttuurin nimissä, 44; In his memoirs, Edgar Savisaar, one of the founding members of Popular Front of Estonia, claims that Moscow gave to President Koivisto the task to prevent the independence of the Baltic States. Savisaar, Viron vaaran vuodet, 85.
24. Jaakko Kalela’s memo, 2 February 1989. MKA, box 37.
25. Rausmaa, Kyllä kulttuurin nimissä, 51–52.
26. Jaakko Kaurinkoski’s report from Leningrad to the Ministry for Foreign Affairs, 31 August 1989. UMA 21.50 NLO, Sisäpolitiikka Baltian tilanne/Suomi 1989.
27. Letter from Mauno Koivisto to George Bush, 19 September 1989. MKA, box 38; Koivisto, Witness to History, 124.
28. Rentola, “When to Move?,” 279.
29. Mauno Koivisto’s memo on a meeting with Jarmo Wählström and Reijo Käkelä, 27 September 1989. MKA, box 38.
30. Matti Viialainen’s memo, 20 October 1989. MKA, box 39; Koivisto, Historian tekijät, 271.
31. Jaakko Kalela’s memo, 25 October 1989. MKA, box 39.
32. Ibid. 39.
33. Blomberg, Vakauden kaipuu, 99.
34. Mauno Koivisto’s memo, 26 October 1989. MKA, box 39.
35. Jaakko Blomberg’s memo 96, 29 January 1990. UMA 18.41 NLO, Suhteet Suomi-Viro; Rausmaa, Kyllä kulttuurin nimissä, 62.
36. Kasekamp, A History of the Baltic States, 167.
37. Mauno Koivisto’s memo, 8 February 1990. MKA, box 40; Koivisto, Historian tekijät, 322.
38. Jaakko Kalela’s memo, 9 February 1990. MKA, box 40.
39. Metsalo, Vallanvaihto suomalaissilmin, 15.
40. Document: Baltian tilanne; ulkoasiainministeri Pertti Paasion antama lausunto 27.3.1990, Ulkopoliittisia lausuntoja ja asiakirjoja 1990 (Situation in the Baltic Countries; Statement by Foreign Minister Pertti Paasio; 27 March 1990, Documents on Foreign Policy 1990, 84.)
41. Helsingin Sanomat, 11 April 1990; Uusi Suomi, 11 April 1990.
42. Mauno Koivisto’s memo, 26 April 1990. MKA, box 40.
43. Koivisto, Historian tekijät, 269.
44. This was a rather simplistic reading of history because Sweden allowed a force of 8,000 volunteers to fight on the Finnish-Soviet Front and provided a considerable amount of military equipment for Finland. Jakobson, Finland in the new Europe, 95; and Rentola, “When to Move?” 278.
45. Brands and Suri, “Thinking about History and Foreign Policy,” 11–13.
46. Speech by the President of the Republic at the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe; 9 May 1990, Documents on Foreign Policy 1990, 136.
47. Bošs, Aligning with the Unipole, 48–56, 58–66.
48. Jaakko Kalela’s memo, 31 August 1990. MKA, box 41.
49. A working group of Estonia memo 254, 6 March 1991, Jaakko Kaurinkoski. UMA 18.41 NLO, Suhteet Suomi-Viro 1991; A working group of Estonia memo 852, 24 September 1990, Jaakko Kaurinkoski. UMA 18.41 NLO, Suhteet Suomi-Viro 1990.
50. A working group of Estonia memo 852, 24 September 1990, Jaakko Kaurinkoski. UMA 18.41 NLO, Suhteet Suomi-Viro 1990.
51. Aunesluoma and Uutela, “In Germany’s Footsteps,” 430.
52. Document: Hallituksen turvallisuuspoliittinen selonteko eduskunnan ulkoasiainvaliokunnalle 24.10.1990, Ulkopoliittisia lausuntoja ja asiakirjoja 1991 (Government Report on Security Policy to the Foreign Affairs Committee of Parliament; 24 October 1990, Documents on Foreign Policy 1990), 266–267.
53. Heikki Talvitie’s report from Moscow to the Ministry for Foreign Affairs, 9 November 1990. UMA Moskova r-sarja 1990; Heikki Talvitie’s report from Moscow to the Ministry for Foreign Affairs, 10 December 1990. UMA Moskova r-sarja 1990.
54. Jaakko Kalela’s memo, 21 November 1990. MKA, box 42.
55. Koivisto, Historian tekijät, 385.
56. Jaakko Kalela’s memo, 28 December 1990. MKA, box 42. 28.12.1990; Koivisto, Witness to History, 174.
57. Spohr Readman, “Baltic Independence,” 30.
58. Kansikas, “Dismantling the Soviet Security System,” 88; and Blomberg, Vakauden kaipuu, 133–136.
59. Kansikas, “Dismantling the Soviet Security System,” 90–94; and Ritvanen, Operaatio Pax, 74–86.
60. Ibid., 86.
61. Special adviser to Harri Holkeri, Marcus Laurent’s memo, 3 January 1991. MKA, box 43; Savisaar, Pääministeri, 90–94.
62. Rausmaa, Kyllä kulttuurin nimissä, 178.
63. Koivisto, Historian tekijät, 393–394.
64. Document: Suomen suhtautuminen Baltian maihin; Tasavallan Presidentin lausunto tiedotusvälineille 10.1.1991, Ulkopoliittisia lausuntoja ja asiakirjoja 1991, (Finland’s Position on the Baltic States; Statement by the President of the Republic to the Media; 10 January 1991, Documents on Foreign Policy 1991), 101.
65. Ibid., 101.
66. Koivisto, Historian tekijät, 395–396; In 1922, Finland signed a defence treaty together with Estonia, Latvia and Poland that was to put these countries under obligation to cooperate in case of an unprovoked attack on one of them by a third party, i.e. the Soviet Union. The majority of the Finnish parliament, however, did not approve the treaty which led to the resignation of the foreign minister Rudolf Holsti, the main proponent of Baltic cooperation among the Finnish leaders. See Lehti, A Baltic League, 394–396.
67. Visuri, “Finland and the Baltic States,” 220.
68. Document: Liettuan tilanne: hallituksen kannanotto 13.1.1991, Ulkopoliittisia lausuntoja ja asiakirjoja 1991 (Situation in Lithuania; Government Statement; 13 January 1991, Documents on Foreign Policy 1991), 104.
69. Pursiainen and Saari, ”Baltian väkivaltaisuudet 1991,” 117–119; and Rausmaa, Kyllä kulttuurin nimissä, 179–180.
70. Koivisto, Historian tekijät, 394, 397.
71. Rausmaa, Kyllä kulttuurin nimissä, 180.
72. Jaakko Blomberg’s memo 78, 22 January 1991. UMA 18.41 NLO, Suhteet Suomi-Baltian maat 1991; Koivisto, Historian tekijät, 401.
73. Jaakko Blomberg’s memo 78, 24 January 1991. UMA 18.41 NLO, Suhteet Suomi-Baltian maat 1991.
74. Blomberg, Vakauden kaipuu, 295.
75. Jaakko Blomberg’s memo 78, 22 January 1991. UMA 18.41 NLO, Suhteet Suomi-Baltian maat 1991.
76. Markus Koivisto’s memo 16, 7 January 1991. UMA 21.50 NLO, Sisäpolitiikka Neuvostoliitto 1991; Heikki Talvitie’s report from Moscow to the Ministry for Foreign Affairs, 17 January 1991. UMA 21.50 NLO, Sisäpolitiikka Neuvostoliitto 1991.
77. Jaakko Blomberg’s memo 97, 25 January 1991. UMA 18.41 NLO, Suhteet Suomi-Baltian maat 1991.
78. Translation of a Letter from Mihail Gorbachev to Mauno Koivisto, 5 February 1991. MKA, box 44; Koivisto, Witness to History, 182–183.
79. Koivisto, Historian tekijät, 404.
80. Jaakko Kalela’s memo, 31 January 1991. MKA, box 43.
81. Koivisto, Witness to History, 186.
82. A working group of Estonia memo 254, 6 March 1991, Jaakko Kaurinkoski. UMA 18.41 NLO, Suhteet Suomi-Viro 1991.
83. Taisto Tolvanen’s memo, 7 May 1991. MKA, box 46; Blomberg, Vakauden kaipuu, 298.
84. Jaakko Kaurinkoski’s memo 523, 14 May 1991. MKA, box 46.
85. Jaakko Kalela’s memo, 2 July 1991. MKA, box 47.
86. Sarotte, 1989, 229.
87. For brevity, this article refers to the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic as Russia.
88. Ministry for Foreign Affairs cable MOSB166 from 29 October 1990 to the Finnish embassy to Moscow. UMA 18.41 NLO, Suhteet Suomi-Neuvostoliitto, suhteet Venäjään 1988–1990.
89. See above 57, 25.
90. See above 81, 190.
91. Blomberg, Vakauden kaipuu, 58–59, 219.
92. Jaakko Blomberg’s memo 714, 2 July 1991. UMA 18.60 NLO, Tasavallan presidentti Mauno Koiviston vierailu Neuvostoliittoon 24.-25.6.1991.
93. Jaakko Blomberg’s memo 813, 13 August 1991. UMA 18.41 NLO, Suhteet Suomi-Venäjä 1991.
94. In his famous ’Chicken Kiev speech’ delivered in Kiev on 1 August 1991, George Bush argued that the United States would not support those who sought independence in order to replace a far-off-tyranny with a local despotism. Plokhy, Last Empire, 63–65.
95. Document: Hallituksen kannanotto Neuvostoliiton tilanteen johdosta, Ulkopoliittisia lausuntoja ja asiakirjoja 1991 (Situation in the Soviet Union; Government Statement; 19 August 1991, Documents on Foreign Policy 1991), 140.
96. Cable KOB0442 from Copenhagen to the Ministry for Foreign Affairs. MKA, box 47.
97. Rausmaa, Kyllä kulttuurin nimissä, 216.
98. Metsalo, Vallanvaihto suomalaissilmin, 115–116; and Rausmaa, Kyllä kulttuurin nimissä, 216–217.
99. Pekka Shemeikka’s memo 860, 22 August 1991. UMA 18.41 NLO, Suhteet Suomi-Viro 1991; and Väyrynen, On muutoksen aika, 111–112.
100. Plokhy, Last Empire, 174.
101. Heikki Talvitie’s report from Moscow to the Ministry for Foreign Affairs, 24 August 1991. UMA 21.50 NLO Sisäpolitiikka Neuvostoliitto 1991.
102. Aho, Pääministeri, 66.
103. Koivisto’s handwritten memo on a meeting with the Cabinet Foreign Affairs Committee, 25 August. MKA, box 47.
104. Koivisto’s chief of staff, Jaakko Kalela, and the key Finnish foreign ministry officials gave background support to Prime Minister Aho. Aho, Pääministeri, 69; and Metsalo, Vallanvaihto suomalaissilmin, 116.
105. Document: Baltian maiden itsenäistyminen; hallituksen kannanotto 25.8.1991 (Independence of the Baltic Countries; Government Statement; 25 August 1991, Documents on Foreign Policy 1991), 116.
106. Rausmaa, Kyllä kulttuurin nimissä, 217.
107. Blomberg to Kalela, 27 August 1991; Kalela’s reply, 27 August 1991. MKA, box 47; Blomberg, Vakauden kaipuu, 355–356.
108. Koivisto, Historian tekijät, 440.
109. Rausmaa, Kyllä kulttuurin nimissä, 218.
110. Jaakko Kalela’s memo, 6 September 1991. MKA, box 48.
111. Kansikas, “Dismantling the Soviet Security System,” 95; and Koivisto, Historian tekijät, 442.
112. Jaakko Blomberg’s unnumbered memo, 13 September 1991. UMA 18.41 NLO, Suhteet Suomi-Venäjä 1991.
113. Blomberg, Vakauden kaipuu, 415, 422.
114. Kansikas, Dismantling the Soviet Security System, 97.
115. Rausmaa, Kyllä kulttuurin nimissä, 228.
116. After his presidency, Mauno Koivisto wrote a book on ‘the idea of Russia’. See Koivisto, Venäjän idea.
117. Brands and Suri, “Thinking about History and Foreign Policy,” 12.
Additional information
Notes on contributors
Juha-Matti Ritvanen
Juha-Matti Ritvanen is a PhD candidate at the Department of Philosophy, Contemporary History and Political Science, University of Turku, Finland. His doctoral dissertation focuses on Finnish-Soviet relations at the end of the Cold War.
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