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Abstract
Since the 1990s, labour markets in the core countries have been extending recruitment fields into other countries to meet the growing demand for qualified workers, creating a situation of international competition. Rethinking the Marxian dependence approach, this paper posits that the international migration of highly qualified workers would account for the consolidation of a specific geography, which includes dominance by knowledge-based economies. The new social formations that arise from the migration of qualified workers bring to the fore the issue of international division of labour and knowledge. In this context, the agenda of knowledge-based economies shows the new forms of contradiction between dependence and development.
Correction Statement
This article has been republished with minor changes. These changes do not impact the academic content of the article.
Notes
Acknowledgment
I acknowledge to Gabriel Gustavo Torem for the proofread for the English version.
Notes
1 Marini and Millán, La teoría social latinoamericana, 58–59.
2 Ferreyra et al., At a Crossroads.
3 Bos et al., “PISA 2015.”
4 Shie and Meer, “The Rise of Knowledge in Dependency Theory.”
5 Ferreira, Osório, and Luce, Padrão de reprodução do Capital.
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8 Shie and Meer, “The Rise of Knowledge in Dependency Theory,” 88.
9 Stein et al., “International Education and Training of Scientists.”
10 Boeri et al., Brain Drain and Brain Gain, 25–30.
11 Collins, “Talent Wars.”
12 Mazzucato, Lo Stato innovatore.
13 Altbach and Knight, “The Internationalization of Higher Education”; Berry and Taylor, “Internationalisation in Higher Education”; Huang, “Internationalization of Higher Education.”
14 Bresnahan and Gambardella, Building High-tech Clusters; Saxenian and Hsu, “The Silicon Valley-Hsinchu connection”; Zhang, “Growing Silicon Valley.”
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20 Triadic patents have a relative higher trade value because they are registered in the three largest world markets — United States, the European Union, and Japan. In 2012, the number of such patents was estimated to be about 52,000. See National Science Board, “Science and Engineering Indicators 2016.”
21 National Science Board, “Science and Engineering Indicators 2016.”
22 Delgado et al., “La innovación y la migración calificada en la encrucijada”; Miguelez and Fink, “Measuring the International Mobility of Inventors.”
23 Bessen and Meurer, “The Patent Litigation Explosion.”
24 Hill, “The Patent Box”; McLean, “Fighting IP Migration.”
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26 Fagerberg, “A Technology Gap Approach;” Romer, “Idea Gaps and Object Gaps.”
27 Gereffi, The Pharmaceutical Industry.
28 Castells and Laserna, “The New Dependency.”
29 OIM, “Migración calificada y desarrollo,” 61.
30 Valencia, “Subimperialismo e Dependência na Era Neoliberal,” 501.
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32 Mezzadra and Neilson, Border as Method, or, the Multiplication of Labor, 16.
33 Mezzadra and Neilson, “Fronteras de inclusión diferencial.”
34 Santos, “Más allá del pensamiento abismal.”
35 Slaughter and Rhoades, Academic Capitalism and the New Economy.
36 Delgado et al., “La innovación y la migración calificada,” 17.
37 Gallagher and Chudnovsky, Rethinking Foreign Investment; Gallagher and Zarsky, The Enclave Economy.
38 In the 1960s, there were about 30 million students, mainly in the United States, the USSR, and Europe. In the last decade, there were about 150 million higher education students because of large increases in China, India, United States, the Russian Federation, Brazil, and Indonesia. See Koolhaas et al., “Tendencias recientes.”
39 OECD, “Education at a Glance 2012”; OECD, “International Migration Outlook 2017.”
40 Robertson and Keeling, “Stirring the Lions.”
41 Dustmann, “Temporary Migration”; Goldman and Gates, In Pursuit of Prestige; Hazelkorn, “The Impact of League Tables and Ranking.”
42 Haug, “Quality Assurance/Accreditation”; Westerheijden et al., Quality Assurance in Higher Education.
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44 Rico and Emilia, “La movilidad internacional por razones de estudio.”
45 OECD, Education at a Glance 2014, 343.
46 OECD, Education at a Glance 2014, 343.
47 Institute of International Education, “International Students.”
48 Lo, Li, and Yu, “Highly-Skilled Migration.”
49 This rate is three times higher compared to that of US and European core countries. For instance, nearly 47 percent of the Chinese students and 55 percent of the Indian students who arrived in the United States between 2000 and 2004 became permanent residents in 2014, that is, 10 years after being granted their first student visa. See Lo, Li, and Yu, “Highly-Skilled Migration.”
50 OECD, “International Migration Outlook 2017.”
51 National Science Board, “Science and Engineering Indicators 2014.”
52 Marginson, “Global Position and Position Taking.”
53 OECD, “Education at a Glance 2016.”
54 OECD, “Education at a Glance 2014,” 342.
55 Robertson and Keeling, “Stirring the Lions.”
56 National Science Board, 2014, “Science and Engineering Indicators 2014.”
57 Recent research on the concentration of talent in Europe emphasizes the case of Grecia, which has been losing human capital (73 percent of emigrants were university graduates and 51 percent were doctors) to the United Kingdom (31 percent), the United States (28 percent), and Germany. Italy has also lost many qualified professionals, mainly to the United States (34 percent), the United Kingdom (26 percent), and France (11 percent). See van der Wende, “International Academic Mobility.”
58 Docquier, Lowell, and Marfouk, A Gendered Assessment of the Brain Drain.
59 OEA, “Migración internacional en las Américas.”
60 Koolhaas, Fiori, and Pellegrino, “Tendencias recientes.”
61 García and Lozano Ascencio, “Selectivity and Precarious Labor.”
62 OEA, “Migración internacional en las Américas.”
63 Lozano Ascencio and Gandini, “Migración calificada y desarrollo humano,” 688; Esteban, “La movilidad de profesionales y estudiantes universitarios.”
64 OIM, “Migración calificada y desarrollo.”
65 In some countries of the region, remittances represent a considerable source of income, whether in absolute terms (Brazil, Colombia, and Peru, with 4,044, 4,023, and 2,534 million dollars respectively), or as a proportion of their GDP (Bolivia, Paraguay, and Ecuador, with three to five percent of GDP). See Texidó and Gurrieri, “Panorama Migratorio de América del Sur,” 62–63.
66 De Haas, “Remittances, Migration and Development”; Texidó y Gurrieri, “Panorama Migratorio,” 64.
67 De Haas, “Remittances, Migration and Development”; Han et al., “Will They Stay or Will They Go?”; Lozano Ascencio and Hernández, “Migración calificada y remesas.”
68 Lozano Ascencio and Gandini, “Migración calificada y desarrollo humano,” 279.
69 Robertson and Keeling, “Stirring the Lions.”
70 Maldonado-Maldonado, “Latin American Higher Education.”
71 Ferreyra et al., At a Crossroads.
72 OECD, “International Migration Outlook 2017.”
73 OIM, “Migración calificada y desarrollo.”
74 Esteban, “La movilidad de profesionales y estudiantes universitarios.”
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76 Brambilla et al., Skills, Exports, and the Wages, 18.
77 Mattoo Neagu, and Ozden, “Brain Waste?”
78 Some methodological concerns from this research suggest the need to have a global measure of a labour market that, strictu sensu, is transnational, and to understand it beyond what happens at the origin or destination poles. This supports the fact that we need to break free from methodological nationalism in studying labour markets and international mobility of highly qualified people, and approach the functioning of these labour markets from a more structural stance, acknowledging the idea that institutionalized discrimination or qualified labour underrating is a central condition of such asymmetrical integration. See Lozano Ascencio, Gandini, and Ramirez-Garcia, “Devaluación del trabajo de posgraduados,” 87.
79 OIM, “Migración Calificada y desarrollo,” 66–67.
80 OIM, “Migración Calificada y desarrollo,” 87.
81 Gamso, “A Case of Diversified Dependency,” 111.
82 INEC, “Indice. La pobreza en el Ecuador.”
83 Lemarchand, Sistemas nacionales de ciencia, 73.
84 INEC, “Encuesta nacional de Empleo.”
85 Silva, “The Return of the State.”
86 Gamso, “A Case of Diversified Dependency,” 120.
87 Asamblea Nacional, “Código Ingenios.”
88 Asamblea Nacional, “Ley Orgánica de Educación Superior.”
89 Ramírez, Universidad urgente, 43.
90 “Plan Nacional para el Buen Vivir 2009–2013,” 111.
91 Asamblea Nacional, “Código Ingenios.”
92 Gamso, “A Case of Diversified Dependency,” 120.
93 Thompson and Harley, “Beneath the Radar?”
94 Piore, Birds of Passage; Castles and Kosack, “The Function of Labour Immigration.”
95 Lozano Ascencio and Gandini, “Migración calificada y desarrollo humano,” 709.
96 World Bank, “Brain Gain”; “World Development Report 2006,” 205–24.
97 Delgado, “Migración mexicana altamente calificada”.
98 Blitz, “Highly Skilled Migration.”
99 Augé, Tra i confini, 40–41.
100 Han et al., “Will They Stay or Will They Go?”
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Francesco Maniglio
Francesco Maniglio teaches in the Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences at the Technical University of Manabí in Portoviejo, Ecuador.