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ABSTRACT
Over the last decade, there has been an increased focus among researchers on the role of the Internet among actors and groups across the political and ideological spectrum. There has been particular emphasis on the ways that far-right extremists utilize forums and social media to express ideological beliefs through sites affiliated with real-world extremist groups and unaffiliated websites. The majority of research has used qualitative assessments or quantitative analyses of keywords to assess the extent of specific messages. Few have considered the breadth of extremist ideologies expressed among participants so as to quantify the proportion of beliefs espoused by participants. This study addressed this gap in the literature through a content analysis of over 18,000 posts from eight far-right extremist forums operating online. The findings demonstrated that the most prevalent ideological sentiments expressed in users’ posts involved anti-minority comments, though they represent a small proportion of all posts made in the sample. Additionally, users expressed associations to far-right extremist ideologies through their usernames, signatures, and images associated with their accounts. The implications of this analysis for policy and practice to disrupt extremist movements were discussed in detail.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.
Notes
1 Randy Borum, “Radicalization into Violent Extremism I: A Review of Social Science Theories,” Journal of Strategic Security 4 (2011): 7–36; Mark Hamm, Terrorism as Crime: From Oklahoma City to Al Qaeda and Beyond (New York City, NY: New York University Press, 2007); Edward H. Kaplan “Estimating the Duration of Jihadi Terror Plots in the United States,” Studies in Conflict & Terrorism 35, no. 12 (2012): 880–94; Alan B. Krueger, “What Makes a Homegrown Terrorist? Human Capital and Participation in Domestic Islamic Terrorist Groups in the USA,” Economics Letters, 101 (2008): 293–96; Clark McCauley and Sophia Moskalenko, Friction: How Radicalization Happens to them and us (Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press: 2011); John Monahan, “The Individual Risk Assessment of Terrorism,” Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, 18 (2012): 167–205; Marc Sageman, Understanding Terror Networks (College City, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press: 2004); Pete Simi and Robert Futrell, American Swastika: Inside the White Power Movement’s Hidden Spaces of Hate (New York, NY: Rowman and Littlefield Publishers, 2010); Jessica Stern, Terror in the Name of God: Why Religious Militants Kill (New York, NY: Harper Collins Publishers, 2003).
2 Joshua D. Freilich and Gary LaFree, “Criminology Theory and Terrorism: Introduction to the Special Issue,” Terrorism and Political Violence 27 (2015): 1–8.
3 Mark S. Hamm and Ramon Spaaij, The Age of Lone Wolf Terrorism (New York: Columbia University Press, 2017); Thomas J. Holt, Joshua D. Freilich, and Steven M. Chermak. “Internet-Based Radicalization as Enculturation to Violent Deviant Subcultures,” Deviant Behavior 38, no. 8 (2017): 855–69.
4 Holt, Freilich, and Chermak, “Internet-Based Radicalization as Enculturation to Violent Deviant Subcultures”; Thomas J. Holt, Joshua D. Freilich, Steven M. Chermak, Colleen Mills, and Jason Silva, “Loners, Colleagues, or Peers? Assessing the Social Organization of Radicalization,” American Journal of Criminal Justice 44 (2019): 83–105. Simi and Futrell, American Swastika; Gabriel Weimann, “Cyber-Fatwas and Terrorism,” Studies in Conflict & Terrorism 34, no. 10 (2011): 765–81.
5 Lorraine Bowman-Grieve, “Exploring ‘Stormfront’: A Virtual Community of the Radical Right,” Studies in Conflict and Terrorism 32, no. 11 (2009): 989–1007; Simi and Futrell, American Swastika; Weimann, “Cyber-Fatwas and Terrorism.”
6 Arije Antinori, “The ‘Swarm Wolf’. Understanding to Prevent the Evolution of Terror,” (Identification of Potential Terrorists and Adversary Planning. Emerging Technologies and New Counter-Terror Strategies. NATO Science for Peace and Security Series, Amsterdam, The Netherlands: IOS Press, 2012); Jamie Bartlett and Carl Miller, “The Edge of Violence: Towards Telling the Difference between Violent and Non-Violent Radicalization,” Terrorism and Political Violence 24, no. 1 (2012): 1–21.
7 Steven M. Chermak, Joshua D. Freilich, and Michael Suttmoeller, “The Organizational Dynamics of Far-Right Hate Groups in the United States: Comparing Violent and Nonviolent Organizations,” Studies in Conflict and Terrorism 36 (2013): 193–218.
8 Kaplan, “Estimating the duration of Jihadi terror plots in the United States.”; Gary LaFree, Laura Dugan, and Erin Miller, Putting Terrorism in Context: Lessons from the Global Terrorism Database (London, UK: Routledge, 2015); Sageman, Understanding Terror Networks.
9 Christopher Hewitt, Understanding Terrorism in America (New York: Routledge, 2003); Gary LaFree, Laura Dugan, Heather V. Fogg, and Jeffrey Scott, Building a Global Terrorism Database (Washington, DC: Department of Justice, 2006); David Tucker, “What is New about the New Terrorism and How Dangerous is it?” Terrorism and Political Violence 13 (2001): 1–14.
10 Steven Chermak, Jeremy G. Carter, David Carter, Edmund McGarrell, and Jack Drew, “Law Enforcement’s Information Sharing Infrastructure: A National Assessment,” Police Quarterly, 16 (2013): 211–44; Joshua D. Freilich, Steven M. Chermak, and John Simone Jr, “Surveying American State Police Agencies about Terrorism Threats, Terrorism Sources, and Terrorism Definitions,” Terrorism and Political Violence 21 (2009): 450–75.
11 Joshua D. Freilich, Steven M. Chermak, Roberta Belli, Jeffrey A. Gruenewald, and William S. Parkin, “Introducing the United States Extremist Crime Database (ECDB),” Terrorism and Political Violence 26, no. 2 (2014): 372–84; Joshua D. Freilich, Steven M. Chermak, and David Caspi, “Critical Events in the Life Trajectories of Domestic Extremist white Supremacist Groups: A Case Study Analysis of Four Violent Organizations,” Criminology & Public Policy 8, no. 3 (2009): 497–530; Ashmini G. Kerodal, Joshua D. Freilich, and Steven M. Chermak, “Commitment to Extremist Ideology: Using Factor Analysis to Move beyond Binary Measures of Extremism,” Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, 39 (2016): 687–711; Cas Mudde, “Right‐Wing Extremism Analyzed,” European Journal of Political Research 27, no. 2 (1995): 203–24.
12 Freilich, Chermak, Belli, Gruenewald, and Parkin, “Introducing the United States Extremist Crime Database (ECDB).”; Freilich, Chermak, and Caspi, “Critical Events in the Life Trajectories of Domestic Extremist White Supremacist Groups.”; Kerodal, Freilich, and Chermak, “Commitment to Extremist Ideology.”
13 Chermak, Freilich, and Suttmoeller, “The Organizational Dynamics of Far-Right Hate Groups in the United States: Comparing Violent and Nonviolent Organizations.”; Weimann, “Cyber-Fatwas and Terrorism.”
14 Sine Anahita, “Blogging the Borders: Virtual Skinheads, Hypermasculinity, and Heteronormativity,” Journal of Political and Military Sociology 32 (2006): 143–64; Nicole Baumgarten, “Othering Practice in a Right-Wing Extremist Online Forum,” Language@ Internet 14, no. 1 (2017); Shuki Cohen, Thomas J. Holt, Steven M. Chermak, and Joshua D. Freilich, “Invisible Empire of Hate: Gender Differences in the Ku Klux Klan’s Online Justifications for Violence,” Violence and Gender 5, no. 4 (2018): 209–25; Wilem De Koster and Dick Houtman, “‘Stormfront is Like a SECOND Home to Me’ On Virtual Community Formation by Right-Wing Extremists,” Information, Communication & Society 11, no. 8 (2008): 1155–76; Figea, Léo, Lisa Kaati, and Ryan Scrivens, “Measuring Online Affects in a White Supremacy Forum” (Uppsala, Sweden: IEEE Conference on Intelligence and Security Informatics (ISI), IEEE, 2016); Meghan A. Wong, Richard Frank, and Russell Allsup, “The Supremacy of Online White Supremacists – An Analysis of Online Discussions by White Supremacists,” Information & Communications Technology Law 24, no. 1 (2015): 41–73.
15 Baumgarten, “Othering Practice in a Right-Wing Extremist Online Forum.”; Tammy Castle, “Morrigan Rising: Exploring Female-Targeted Propaganda on Hate Group Websites,” European Journal of Cultural Studies 15, no. 6 (2012): 679–94. Cohen, Holt, Chermak, and Freilich, “Invisible Empire of Hate.”; De Koster and Houtman, “Stormfront is Like a Second Home To Me.”; Margaret E. Duffy, “Web of Hate: A Fantasy Theme Analysis of the Rhetorical Vision of Hate Groups Online,” Journal of Communication Inquiry 27 (2003): 291–312.
16 Blevins and Holt, “Examining the Virtual Subculture of Johns.”; Holt, “Exploring Strategies for Qualitative and Criminal Justice Inquiry Using Online Data.”; Thomas J. Holt, “Examining the Role of Technology in the Formation of Deviant Subcultures,” Social Science Computer Review 28, no. 4 (2010): 466–81; Patrick J. Williams, and Heith Copes, “‘How Edge are you?’ Constructing Authentic Identities and Subcultural Boundaries in a Straightedge Internet Forum,” Symbolic Interaction 28, no. 1 (2005): 67–89.
17 Kerodal, Freilich, and Chermak, “Commitment to Extremist Ideology.”
18 Val Burris, Emery Smith, and Ann Strahm, “White Supremacist Networks on the Internet,” Sociological Focus 33, no. 2 (2000): 215–35; Steven M. Chermak, Searching for a Demon: The Media Construction of the Militia Movement (Lebanon, NH: UPNE, 2002); Abbee Corb, Online Hate and Cyber-Bigotry (The Routledge International Handbook on Hate Crime, London, UK: Routledge, 2014), 306; Brian Levin, “Cyberhate: A Legal and Historical Analysis of Extremists’ use of Computer Networks in America,” American Behavioral Scientist 45, no. 6 (2002): 958–88; Kenneth Saul Stern, A Force upon the Plain: The American Militia Movement and the Politics of Hate (New York, NY: Simon & Schuster, 1996); Michael Whine, “Trans-European Trends in Right-Wing Extremism,” Mapping the Extreme Right in Contemporary Europe, edited by Andrea Mammone, Emmanuel Godin, Brian Jenkins (New York, NY: 2012), 317–34.
19 Weimann, “Cyber-Fatwas and Terrorism.”
20 Chermak, Freilich, and Suttmoeller, “The Organizational Dynamics of Far-Right Hate Groups in the United States.”
21 Priscilla Marie Meddaugh and Jack Kay, “Hate Speech or ‘Reasonable Racism?’ The other in Stormfront,” Journal of Mass Media Ethics 24, no. 4 (2009): 251–68.
22 Kirsten Dyck, Reichsrock: The International Web of White-Power and Neo-Nazi Hate Music (Newark, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2016); Thomas J. Holt, “Exploring the Intersections of Technology, Crime, and Terror,” Terrorism and Political Violence 24, no. 2 (2012): 337–54; Simi and Futrell, American Swastika.
23 Timothy W. Luke, “Overtures for the Triumph of the Tweet: White Power Music and the Alt-Right in 2016,” New Political Science, 39 (2016): 277–82; Simi and Foutrell, “American Swastika.”
24 Savvas Zannettou, Barry Bradlyn, Emiliano De Cristofaro, Haewoon Kwak, Michael Sirivianos, Gianluca Stringini, and Jeremy Blackburn, “What is Gab: A Bastion of Free Speech or an Alt-Right Echo Chamber,” in Companion Proceedings of the The Web Conference 2018 (2018), 1007–1014. Savvas Zannettou, International World Wide Web Conferences Steering Committee, Lyon, France, 2018; Yuchen Zhou, Mark Dredze, David A. Broniatowski, and William D. Adler, “Elites and Foreign Actors Among the Alt-right: The Gab Social Media Platform,” First Monday 24, no. 9 (2019).
25 Mattias Ekman, “The Dark Side of Online Activism: Swedish Right-Wing Extremist Video Activism on YouTube,” MedieKultur: Journal of media and communication research 30, no. 56 (2014): 21–34; Bernhard Forchtner and Ana Tominc, “Kalashnikov and Cooking-Spoon: Neo-Nazism, Veganism and a Lifestyle Cooking Show on YouTube,” Food, Culture & Society 20, no. 3 (2017): 415–41.
26 Edna Erez, Gabriel Weimann, and Aaron Weisburd, Jihad, Crime, and the Internet: Content Analysis of Jihadist Forum Discussions (Washington, DC: National Institute of Justice, 2011); Freilich et al., “Critical events in the life trajectories of domestic extremist white supremacist groups.”; Thomas Rid, “Cracks in the Jihad Why we need a New Strategy in the Fight against Global Terrorism,” Internationale Politik 66 (2011): 10–19.
27 Erez, Weimann, and Weisburd, “Jihad, crime, and the Internet.”
28 Matthew C. Benigni, Kenneth Joseph, and Kathleen M. Carley, “Online Extremism and the Communities that Sustain it: Detecting the ISIS Supporting Community on Twitter,” PloS One 12, no. 12 (2017): e0181405. Nico Prucha, “IS and the Jihadist Information Highway–Projecting Influence and Religious Identity via Telegram,” Perspectives on Terrorism 10, no. 6 (2016): 48–58.
29 Holt, Freilich, and Chermak, “Internet-Based Radicalization as Enculturation to Violent Deviant Subcultures.”
30 Thomas J. Holt, “Examining the Role of Technology in the Formation of Deviant Subcultures,” Social Science Computer Review 28, no. 4 (2010): 466–81; Patrick J. Williams, and Heith Copes, “‘How Edge are You?’ Constructing Authentic Identities and Subcultural Boundaries in a Straightedge Internet Forum,” Symbolic Interaction 28, no. 1 (2005): 67–89.
31 Lorraine Bowman-Grieve, “Exploring ‘Stormfront’: A Virtual Community of the Radical Right,” Studies in Conflict and Terrorism 32 (2009): 989–1007; Simi and Futrell, American Swastika.
32 Steven M. Chermak, Joshua D. Freilich, and Zachary Shemtob, “Law Enforcement Training and the Domestic Far Right,” Criminal Justice and Behavior 36, no. 12 (2009): 1305–22.
33 Mudde, “Right-wing Extremism Analyzed.”, 203–5.
34 Kerodal, Freilich, and Chermak, “Movement Parties of the Far Right.”; Andrea L. P. Pirro and Pietro Castelli Gattinara, “Movement Parties of the Far Right: The Organization and Strategies of Nativist Collective Actors,” Mobilization: An international Quarterly, 23 (2018): 367–83.
35 Freilich, Chermak, Belli, Gruenewald, and Parkin, “Introducing the United States Extremist Crime Database (ECDB).”; Jeff Gruenewald, Joshua D. Freilich, and Steven M. Chermak, “An Overview of the Domestic Far-Right and its Criminal Activities,” In Hate crimes: hate crime offenders, edited by Barbara Perry, Brian Levin, Paul Iganski, Randy Blazak, and Frederick M. Lawrence, vol. 5, 1st ed. (Westport CT; Praeger, 2009): 1–21; Kerodal, Freilich, and Chermak, “Commitment to Extremist Ideology.”
36 Pirro and Gattinara, “Movement Parties of the Far Right.”
37 Michael Barkun, “Millenarian Aspects of ‘White Supremacist’ Movements,” Terrorism and Political Violence 1, no. 4 (1989): 409–34; Kathleen M. Blee, Inside Organized Racism: Women in the Hate Movement (Stanford, CA: Univ of California Press, 2002); Chermak, Searching for a Demon; Betty A. Dobratz, and Stephanie L. Shanks-Meile, “White Power, White Pride!”: the White Separatist Movement in the United States (Woodbridge, CT: Twayne Pub, 1997); Jeffrey Kaplan, “Right Wing Violence in North America,” Terrorism and Political Violence 7, no. 1 (1995): 44–95; Jeffrey Kaplan, “Leaderless Resistance,” Terrorism and Political Violence 9, no. 3 (1997): 80–95; Michael Kimmel and Abby L. Ferber, “‘White Men Are This Nation:’ Right-Wing Militias and the Restoration of Rural American Masculinity,” Rural Sociology 65, no. 4 (2000): 582–604.
38 Ibid.; Barbara Perry, and Randy Blazak, “Places for Races: The White Supremacist Movement Imagines US Geography,” Journal of Hate Studies 8, no. 1 (2009): 29–51; Pete Simi, “Why Study White Supremacist Terror? A Research Note,” Deviant Behavior 31, no. 3 (2010): 251–73; Simi and Futrell, American Swastika.
39 Freilich, Chermak, and Simone, “Surveying American State Police Agencies about Terrorism Threats, Terrorism Sources, and Terrorism Definitions.”
40 Barkun, “Millenarian aspects of ‘White Supremacist’ Movements.”; Blee, Inside Organized Racism; Chermak, Searching for a Demon; Freilich, Chermak, and Simone, “Surveying American State Police Agencies about Terrorism Threats, Terrorism Sources, and Terrorism Definitions.”; Kaplan, “Right Wing Violence in North America”; Kimmel and Ferber “White Men are this Nation.”; Simi, “Why Study White Supremacist Terror?”
41 Freilich, Chermak, and Simone, “Surveying American State Police Agencies about Terrorism Threats, Terrorism Sources, and Terrorism Definitions.”
42 Ibid.
43 Barkun, “Millenarian Aspects of ‘White Supremacist’ Movements.”; Blee, Inside Organized Racism; Chermak, Searching for a Demon; Freilich, Chermak, and Simone, “Surveying American State Police Agencies about Terrorism Threats, Terrorism Sources, and Terrorism Definitions.”
44 Chermak, Searching for a Demon; Joshua D. Freilich, Nelson A. Pichardo Almanzar, and Craig J. Rivera, “How Social Movement Organizations Explicitly and Implicitly Promote Deviant Behavior: The case of the Militia Movement,” Justice Quarterly 16, no. 3 (1999): 655–83.
45 Blee, Inside Organized Racism; Chermak, Searching for a Demon; Freilich, Chermak, and Simone, “Surveying American State Police Agencies about Terrorism Threats, Terrorism Sources, and Terrorism Definitions.”; Kaplan, “Right Wing Violence in North America”; Kimmel and Ferber, “White Men are this Nation.”; Simi, “Why Study White Supremacist Terror?”
46 Kerodal, Freilich, and Chermak, “Commitment to Extremist Ideology.”
47 Anahita, “Blogging the Borders.”; Baumgarten, “Othering Practice in a Right-Wing Extremist Online Forum.”; Cohen, Holt, Chermak, and Freilich, “Invisible Empire of Hate.”; De Koster and Houtman, “‘Stormfront is Like a Second Home To Me’.”; Figea, Kaati, and Scrivens, “Measuring Online Affects in a White Supremacy Forum.”; Wong, Frank, and Allsup, “The Supremacy of Online White Supremacists – An Analysis of Online Discussions by White Supremacists.”
48 Thomas J. Holt, “Exploring Strategies for Qualitative Criminological and Criminal Justice Inquiry using on‐Line Data,” Journal of Criminal Justice Education 21, no. 4 (2010): 466–87; David Mann and Mike Sutton, “NETCRIME: More Change in the Organization of Thieving,” The British Journal of Criminology 38 (1998): 201–29.
49 Mann and Sutton, “Netcrime,” 2010.
50 Kristie R. Blevins and Thomas J. Holt, “Examining the Virtual Subculture of Johns,” Journal of Contemporary Ethnography 38, no. 5 (2009): 619–48; Holt, “Exploring Strategies for Qualitative and Criminal Justice Inquiry using Online Data.”
51 Thomas J. Holt, and Adam M. Bossler, Cybercrime in Progress: Theory and Prevention of Technology-Enabled Offenses (London: Routledge, 2015).
52 Kerodal, Freilich, and Chermak, “Commitment to Extremist Ideology.”
53 Ibid.
54 Simi and Futrell, American Swastika.
55 Holt, “Exploring strategies for Qualitative and Criminal Justice Inquiry using Online Data.”
56 Kerodal, Freilich, and Chermak, “Commitment to Extremist Ideology.”
57 Blevins and Holt, “Examining the Virtual Subculture of Johns.”; Holt, “Exploring Strategies for Qualitative and Criminal Justice Inquiry using Online Data.”
58 Holt, “Exploring Strategies for Qualitative and Criminal Justice Inquiry using Online Data.”
59 Kerodal, Freilich, and Chermak, “Commitment to Extremist Ideology.”
60 Anahita, “Blogging the Borders.”; Baumgarten, “Othering Practice in a Right-Wing Extremist Online Forum.”; Castle, “Morrigan Rising.”; Cohen, Holt, Chermak, and Freilich, “Invisible Empire of Hate.”; De Koster and Houtman, “‘Stormfront is Like a Second Home To Me.”; Figea, Kaati, and Scrivens, “Measuring Online Affects in a White Supremacy Forum.”; Wong, Frank, and Allsup, “The Supremacy of Online White Supremacists – An Analysis of Online Discussions by White Supremacists.”
61 Blee, Inside Organized Racism; Chermak, Searching for a Demon; Freilich, Chermak, and Simone, “Surveying American State Police Agencies about Terrorism Threats, Terrorism Sources, and Terrorism Definitions.”; Kaplan, “Right Wing Violence in North America”; Kimmel and Ferber. “White Men are this Nation.”; Simi, “Why Study White Supremacist Terror?”; Simi and Futrell, American Swastika.
62 Kerodal, Freilich, and Chermak, “Commitment to Extremist Ideology.”
63 Baumgarten, “Othering Practice in a Right-Wing Extremist Online Forum.”; Castle, “Morrigan Rising.”; Cohen, Holt, Chermak, and Freilich, “Invisible Empire of Hate.”; De Koster and Houtman. “‘Stormfront is Like a Second Home To Me.”; Figea, Kaati, and Scrivens, “Measuring Online Affects in a White Supremacy Forum.”
64 Castle, “Morrigan Rising.”; Cohen, Holt, Chermak, and Freilich, “Invisible Empire of Hate.”; De Koster and Houtman, “‘Stormfront is Like a Second Home To Me.”; Stanislav Vystosky and Adrienne L. McCarthy, “Normalizing Cyberracism: A Neutralization Theory Analysis,” Journal of Crime and Justice 40, no. 4 (2017): 446–61.
65 Keir Irwin-Rogers, James Densley, and Craig Pinkney, “Gang Violence and Social Media,” in The Routledge International Handbook of Human Aggression, edited by Jane L. Ireland, Philip Birch, and Carol A. Ireland (New York, NY: Routledge, 2018), 400–10; David C. Pyrooz, Scott H. Decker, and Richard K. Moule Jr, “Criminal and Routine Activities in Online Settings: Gangs, Offenders, and the Internet,” Justice Quarterly 32 (2015): 471–99.
66 Thomas J. Holt, Kristie R. Blevins, and Natasha Burkert, “Considering the Pedophile Subculture Online,” Sexual Abuse 22, no. 1 (2010): 3–24; Ethel Quayle, and Max Taylor, “Child Seduction and Self-Representation on the Internet,” CyberPsychology and Behavior 4, no. 5 (2001): 597–608.
67 Holt, “Exploring Strategies for Qualitative and Criminal Justice Inquiry using Online Data.”; Williams and Copes, “‘How Edge are You?’”
68 Holt, Freilich, Chermak, Mills, and Silva, “Loners, Colleagues, or Peers? Assessing the Social Organization of Radicalization.”; Simi and Futrell, American Swastika.
69 Baumgarten, “Othering Practice in a Right-Wing Extremist Online Forum.”; Cohen, Holt, Chermak, and Freilich, “Invisible Empire of Hate.”; Figea, Kaati, and Scrivens, “Measuring Online Affects in a White Supremacy Forum.”; Holt, Freilich, and Chermak, “Internet-Based Radicalization as Enculturation to Violent Deviant Subcultures.”
70 Kerodal, Freilich, and Chermak, “Commitment to Extremist Ideology.”
71 Ibid.
72 Nicolle Lamerichs, et al., “Elite Male Bodies: The Circulation of Alt-Right Memes and the Framing of Politicians on Social Media,” Participations 15, no. 1 (2018): 180–206.
73 Hamm and Spaaij, The Age of Lone Wolf Terrorism; Holt, Freilich, Chermak, Mills, and Silva, “Loners, Colleagues, or Peers? Assessing the Social Organization of Radicalization.”
74 Ibid.
75 Katharina Gotsch, “Austria and the Threats from Islamist Radicalisation and Terrorist Involvement: An Overview of Governmental and Non-Governmental Initiatives and Policies,” Journal for Deradicalization 12 (2017): 169–91; Cameron Sumpter, “Countering Violent Extremism in Indonesia: Priorities, Practice and the Role of Civil Society,” Journal for Deradicalization 11 (2017): 112–47; Susan Szmania and Phelix Fincher, “Countering Violent Extremism Online and Offline,” Criminology & Public Policy 16, no. 1 (2017): 119–25.
76 Bertjan Doosje and Jan Jaap van Eerten, “‘Counter-Narratives’ against Violent Extremism,” in De-Radicalization: Scientific Insights for Policy, edited by Lore Coleart (Brussels, Belgium: Flemish Peace Institute, 2017): 83–100; Peter Romaniuk and N. C. Nauren Chowdhury Fink, From Input to Impact: Evaluating Terrorism Prevention Programs (Washington DC: Center on Global Counterterrorism Cooperation, 2012); Szmania and Fincher, “Countering Violent Extremism Online and Offline.”
77 Szmania and Fincher, “Countering Violent Extremism Online and Offline.”
78 Doosje and van Eerten, “Counter Narratives against Violent Extremism.”
79 Daniel Koehler, “How and Why We Should Take Deradicalization Seriously,” Nature Human Behavior 1, (2017): 95; Pete Simi, Kathleen Blee, Matthew DeMichele, and Steven Windisch, “Addicted to Hate: Identity Residual among Former White Supremacists,” American Sociological Review, 82 (2017): 1167–87.
80 Szmania and Fincher, “Countering Violent Extremism Online and Offline.”
81 Baumgarten, “Othering Practice in a Right-Wing Extremist Online Forum”; Castle, “Morrigan Rising”; Cohen, Holt, Chermak, and Freilich, “Invisible Empire of Hate”; De Koster and Houtman, “‘Stormfront is Like a Second Home To Me”; Figea, Kaati, and Scrivens, “Measuring Online Affects in a White Supremacy Forum.”
82 Ibid.