Munathamat Badr, from an armed wing to a ruling actor

ABSTRACT

Badr has become a key Shia socio-political-armed organisation in Iraq and has revamped its political and organisational structure. Previously, it was an Iran based and designed Iraqi Shia opposition force, the armed wing of the Supreme Council for the Islamic Revolution in Iraq. Post-2003 it transformed into an incohesive political organisation with an armed wing and engaged in electoral politics. Badr has influenced the state’s apparatus and played a key role in the Popular Mobilisation Forces’ campaign against the Islamic State in Iraq. Primary resources, including interviews, Badr’s media and platforms and publications explain Badr’s approaches and decentralised structure.

KEYWORDS:

• Badr
• popular mobilisation forces
• Shia militias
• Islamic State
• Iran
• Iraq
• Syria

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Notes

1. Staniland’s and Berti’s scholarly conceptual frameworks provide an understanding of the militias’ transformation into armed political parties or organisations. Please see: Staniland, “Militias, Ideology and the state,” 770–793; and Berti, “Armed Groups as Political Parties,” 942–962.

2. Dodge, “Understanding the role of al-Hashd al-Shaabi,” 7.

3. Knights, “Iran’s expanding militia,” 1–12.

4. Mansour, “ The Popular Mobilization Forces.”

5. Spyer and al-Tamimi, “How Iraq became a proxy of the Islamic.”

6. Esposito and al-Din Shahin, “Introduction,” 1.

7. Ibid., 1.

8. Çetinsaya, “The Caliph and Mujtahids,” 1.

9. Louër, “Transnational Shia politics,” 67.

10. Nazir, “Democracy, Islam and insurgency in Iraq,” 47–65; and Alaaldin, “The Islamic Da’wa Party,” 45–65.

11. Seliktar and Rezaei, “From the Badr Brigade,” 128.

12. Ibid.

13. al-Bandari, “Leaders of the Popular Mobilization Forces.”

14. International Crisis Group, “Shiite politics in Iraq,” 4–5.

15. Jill Ricotta, “The Arab Shi’a Nexus,” 139–154.

16. International Crisis Group, “Shiite politics in Iraq,” 4–5.

17. Toumaj, “Death of a general”; and Khalaji, “The Future of Leadership in the Shiite.”

18. Batatu, “Iraq’s underground Shi’i movements,” 3–9.

19. Cleave, “Conceptions of Authority in Iraqi Shi’ism,” 59–78; and Rizvi, “Political mobilization,” 1299–1313.

20. Ned Parker, “The rise of Nouri al-Maliki”; Seliktar and Rezaei, “From the Badr Brigade,” 128.

21. Steinberg, “The Badr Organization.”

22. Foreign Relations Bureau – Iraq, “Hadi al Ameri during Iran-Iraq war.”

23. Buratha News Agency, “The General Secretariat of Badr Organization.”

24. Tucker, “U.S. Conflicts in the 21st Century,” 137−9.

25. Cordesman and Davies, “Iraq’s insurgency and the road to civil conflict,” 38–39; and Buratha News Agency, “The General Secretariat.”

26. al-Zaidi, “Sayd Baqir al-Hakim.”

27. Foreign Relations Bureau – Iraq, “Hadi al Ameri.”

28. Al-Zaidi “Sayd Baqir al-Hakim.”

29. Buratha News Agency, “We What Makes us Different.”

30. Al Jazeera English, “Iraqi Shia mark Ashura”; CISAC, “The Badr Organization of Reconstruction and Development.”

31. Al-Jazeera Arabic, “Badr … An Iraqi Militia that Fought.”

32. Abd, “The one and complete clip of the popular uprising in Holy Karbala in.”

33. Cline, “Shia insurgency.”

34. Alaaldin, “Sectarianism, Governance, and Iraq’s Future.”

35. Mutaba’a al-Siyasia, “A movie depict glimpses”; al-Daraji, “Badr Corps Pictures and Videos”; and Al-Mansori, “Mujahideen and Building Headquarters.”

36. Daragahi, “Badr Brigade: Among Most.”

37. Moaddel, “Ideology as Episodic Discourse,” 353–79.

38. Rizvi, “Political Mobilization,” 1300.

39. al-Hashd, “the Moment Failiq Badr Enters Iraq.”

40. Al-YoTube al-Iraqi, “Mohammad Baqir al-Hakim.”

41. Veen, Grinstead, and El-Kamouni-Janssen, “A house divided Political relations,” 36.

42. Stolberg, “Bush meets with rival of Iraqi leader.”

43. Shmidt, “Shia-islamist political actors in Iraq who are.”

44. Parker, “Torture by Iraqi militias: the report Washington,”.

45. C-Span, “Report on Iraq,”.

46. See note 14 above.

47. Radio Free Europe “Iraq Report.”

48. Knights, “The problematic Badr organization.”

49. Ibid.

50. Kessler, “An Iranian “terrorist” in the White House?”

51. Majidyar, “Badr organization calls on US troops to leave Iraq.”

52. Cordesman and Davies, “Iraq’s insurgency,” 38–39; and Steinberg, “The Badr Organization.”

53. Visser, “Iraq,”102.

54. Buratha News Agency, “The Final Statement of the Tenth Conference.”

55. Smyth, “Should Iraq’s ISCI forces really be considered good militias?”

56. Ibid.

57. Habib “The Supreme Council and Badr are Parting.”

58. Sattar, “Islamic Supreme Council of Iraq at risk of fragmentation.”

59. Habib “The Supreme Council and Badr are Parting.”

60. Ali, “The Revival of the Islamic Supreme Council of Iraq.”

61. Habib, “Shifting Shiite Allegiances.”

62. Phone interview with Dr Husham al-Hashimi 29 April 2020.

63. Ibid.

64. Baghdad Today, “Influenced by al-Sadr.”

65. Salam Muhammad, “Badr organization’s challenges after the split.”

66. Al-Alam TV, “The political office of the Badr Organization.”

67. Alghadeer TV, “Muhammad Naji al-Askari, candidate of the Al-Fateh.”

68. Badr News Agency, “A meeting at al-Shura al-Markazia led by Hadi al-A’meri.”

69. Gilgamesh Press, “The Central Shura of Badr Organization led its regular meeting”; and Badr News Agency, “Headed by Al-Amiri, the Central Shura Council holds.”

70. Wasat al-An, “Al-Ghadeer satellite channel has the report.”

71. Afaq, “The General Secretariat of the Badr Organization holds.”

72. Wakalat al-Nakheel al-Khbariya, “ The General Secretariat of Badr Organization.”.]

73. Matanock, and Staniland, “How and Why Armed Groups Participate in Elections,” 720.

74. Phone interview with Dr Husham al-Hashimi 29 April 2020.

75. Phone interview with an Arab Shia politician based in Baghdad, 26 April 2020.

76. Al-Hadath, “Iraq. Badr Organization’s Divisions.”

77. Phone interview with Dr Husham al-Hashimi 29 April 2020.

78. Cigar, “Iraq’s Shia Warlords and Their Militias.”

79. Voice of America, “Iraqi Interior Ministry: Most of Al-Qaida Network”; and USIPeace, “Briefing Iraq’s Interior Ministry: Frustrating Reform,”.

80. Al-Sistani’s Website, “Carry Weapons and Fight the Terrorists.”

81. Qanat al-Ghadeer, “Statement of the Islamic Resistance of the Military Wing for Badr.”

82. Qanat Afaq al-Fathaiya, “Interview with Hadi al-A’meri the Secretary General of Badr.”

83. Sowell, “The Rise of Iraq’s Militia.”

84. Gulmohamad, “Iraq’s Shia Militias,” 5–7; Sowell, “The Rise of Iraq’s Militia State”; and Knights, “Iran’s Expanding Militia,” 1–12.

85. Mansour, “More than Militias.”

86. France 24 Arabic, “Conversation with Hadi al-A’meri.”

87. Al-Tamimi, “Hashd Brigade Numbers Index.”

88. Ibid.

89. Dury-Agri, Kassim, & Martin, “Iraqi Security Forces and Popular Mobilization.”

90. Kitabat, “The Numbers and Names of the Popular Mobilization Brigades.”

91. Knights, “Iran’s Expanding,” 7; and Roggio and Weiss, “Badr organization fighters pose.”

92. Marinova, “Ask what You Can do for Your (New) Country,” 247.

93. Steinberg, “Badr Organization”; and Knights, “Iraq’s Popular Demobilisation.”

94. Rawabet Center For Research and Strategic Studies, “Hashd al-Sha’abi in Iraq.”

95. Garrison, “Popular Mobilization Messaging.”

96. The New Arab, “Iraq PM sacks Paramilitary Chief.”

97. Al-A’had, “Hadi al-A’meri Attacks Saudi’s Foreign Minister.”

98. Alaaldin, “The Political Scene: Sources of Leverage in Iraqi Politics.”

99. Rudaw, “Khazali: The Truce to Stop Targeting US.”

100. Gulmohamad, “Iraq’s Shia Militias,” 5–7.

101. Dodge, “Understanding the role of al-Hashd”; Knights, “Iran’s Expanding Militia”; Mansour, “The Popular Mobilization Forces”; and Spyer and al-Tamimi. “How Iraq became a proxy.”

102. Nader, “Iran’s Role in Iraq”; Phone interview with Dr Husham al-Hashimi, 29 April 2020.

103. Gulmohamad, “Iraq’s Shia Militias,” 5–7.; Phone interview with Dr Husham al-Hashimi 29 April 2020.

104. Skelton & Ali Saleem, “Iraq’s Disputed Internal Boundaries after ISIS.”

105. Gulmohamad, “Unseating the caliphate,” 16–27.

106. Ibid.

107. Epic, “interview with Renad Mansour.”

108. Gaston and Mass, “Iraq after ISIL: Tikrit and Surrounding Areas.”

109. Sowell, “Badr at the Forefront of Iraq’s Shia Militias.”

110. Knights, & Mello “Losing Mosul, Regenerating in Diyala.”

111. See note 3 above.

112. Ibid.

113. Skelton & Ali Saleem, “Iraq’s Disputed Internal Boundaries after ISIS.”

114. Ali Saleem, Skelton & van den Toorn, “Security and Governance in the Disputed.”

115. Witty, “Iraq’s Post-2014 Counter Terrorism Service.”

116. Nas News, “A Leader in Badr: The Crowd will not Watch the Targeting of the Army’s.”

117. See note 109 above.

118. Ibid.; Tslini, “The official of the Badr Organization.”

119. Skelton & Saleem, “Iraq’s Political Marketplace.”

120. Human Rights Watch, “Iraq: Forces Drag, Mutilate Dead ISIS Fighters Fighter”; Human Rights Watch Iraq, “Investigate Abuses in Hawija Operation”; and Human Rights Watch, “Iraq: Militias Escalate Abuses.”

121. OHCHR, “Iraq: UN Report Documents Human Rights Violations.”

122. Samaha, “Iraq’s ‘Good Sunnis”; and Baghdad News, “Anbar Council.”

123. Al-Tamimi, “Hashd Brigades Number Index.”

124. Smyth, “Quwat Sahl Ninawa.”

125. Gadalla, “Three years after the Caliphate, Iraq’s Christians find little incentive to return.”

126. Umar, “Shia Kurds volunteer in Hashd al-Shaabi.”

127. O’Driscoll and van Zoonen, “The Hashd al-Shaabi and Iraq.”

128. Cigar, “Iraq’s Shia warlords”; and Al-A’had, “Hadi al-A’meri Attacks Saudi’s Foreign.”

129. AlMasalah, “Al-A’meri Shakes the Ground Under.”

130. International Crisis Group, “Saudi Arabia: Back to Baghdad.”

131. Qanat al-Ghadeer, “The Speech of the President of Fatah Coalition.”.

132. See note 95 above.

133. Markaz Badr Thaqafi al-Islam, “Badr Islamic Cultural Center.”

134. Ahl Al-Rafidain, “The Meeting of the Director of the Badr Islamic Cultural.”

135. Ezanto, “Challenging Transnational Shi’i authority in Ba’th Syria,” 95–110.

136. Al-Mussawi et al., “The Murder of Al-Husayn,” 45.

137. Al-Mousawi, “Hussain Al-Zubaidi Al-Bahrani 2016”; Hashd al-Sha’abi – Media Team War, “Hashd Leaders and Fighters”; and Aljamri, “Ritual Mourning.”

138. Alaaldin, “How to Resolve Iraq’s Shiite Militia Problem.”

139. Human Rights Watch, “Iraq: Lethal Force Used Against Protesters.”

140. Robin-D’Cruz, “Violence and Protest in South Iraq.”

141. Smyth, “The Shiite jihad in Syria and its Regional Effects.”

142. Al-Arab, “Why are the Iraqis Fighting in Syria.”

143. Bassem, “Will Iraq’s Shiite Militias Flow to Syria After Post-IS?”

144. The Syrian Observer, “New War, Old Faces”; Gulmohamad, “Evolution of Iraq’s,” 271.

145. Badr Jannahā al-A’skari, “Badr’s Armed Wing in Syria”; and Smyth and Zelin, “Liwa’a Abu.”

146. Media Senki, “The Forces of the Martyr Muhammad Baqir al-Sadr Badr.”

147. Smyth and Zelin, “Liwa’a Abu Fadl al-Abbas.”

148. Smyth, “How Iran is Building its Syrian Hezbollah.”

149. Gulmohamad, “A Short Profile of Iraq’s Shi’a Militias.”

150. See note 142 above.

151. The word “Iraqization” should be used carefully because some argue that “Iraqization” was part of the IRGC’s strategy towards its proxies in Iraq in order to embed them in Iraq and others adopted the term for different purposes such as “Iraqization” of Iraqi Army or Najaf’s marjaya. Please see: Qaidaari, “Iran Wages Psychological War Against”; and Hareth, “Religious Authority and the Politics.”

152. Cordesman and Davies, “Iraq’s Insurgency,” 38.

Additional information

Notes on contributors

Zana Gulmohamad

Zana Gulmohamad is an Associate Tutor in Politics at the Department of Law and Criminology at Edge Hill University, the UK and he was a Contracted Teaching Associate at the Department of Politics and International Relations, University of Sheffield, UK and is a Fellow of the Higher Education Academy. Gulmohamad has conducted extensive research on Iraq’s security and policy making, Shia militias, and the Islamic State. Gulmohamad’s publications included a CTC Sentinel article, a book chapter with Palgrave Macmillan ‘The evolution of Iraq’s Hashd al-Sha’abi (Popular Mobilization Forces’, a book with I.B. Tauris “The Making of Foreign Policy in Iraq” and a co-authored article with Studies in Conflict and Terrorism ‘Reframing the Campaign: From Egypt’s Ansar Bayt al-Maqdis to Wilayat Sinai, Islamic State’s Sinai Province’.