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ABSTRACT
The year 1901 saw an upsurge in Boer guerrilla and concomitant British counterinsurgency operations during the Anglo-Boer (South African) War of 1899 to 1902 – especially in the wake of the failed Middelburg peace negotiations. One hundred and twenty years later, it is appropriate that these events should be revisited. The purpose of this article is to provide an overview of the Boer guerrilla and British counterinsurgency operations, including events in the Cape Colony, where the conflict had grave implications for the local white, brown and black inhabitants, who were caught up between the British and Boer forces, and where in certain areas of the war zone, a civil war was fought. The reactions and views of Lord Kitchener, the British Commander-in-Chief, receive particular attention, as he tried to bring the war to a close as soon as possible, and in the process laying waste to large areas of the war zone, thanks to the scorched-earth policy implemented by the British Army in South Africa.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author.
Notes
1. For the centenary see, for example, Evaldsson and Wessels, ‘The Anglo-Boer War Centennial: A Critical Evaluation,” 125–144.
2. Taylor (ed.-in-chief), History of World War I, 279.
3. Pakenham, The Boer War, 84–99.
4. When terms such as white, black, brown (coloured) and “non-white” are sometimes used out of necessity, no negative connotations are implied.
5. De Wet, Three Years War (October 1899-June 1902), 279–282.
6. Wessels, “Boer Guerrilla and British Counter-guerrilla Operations in South Africa,” 1–24.
7. Surridge, “An Example to be Followed or a Warning to be Avoided?,” 15–43.
8. Amery (ed.), The Times History of the War in South Africa, 1899–1902, 7 volumes.
9. Maurice (ed.) and Grant, History of the War in South Africa 1899–1902, 4 volumes.
10. Breytenbach, Die Geskiedenis van die Tweede Vryheidsoorlog in Suid-Afrika,1899–1902, 6 volumes.
11. Pakenham, The Boer War.
12. Nasson, The South African War, as well as the upgraded versions, namely The War for South Africa: The Anglo- Boer War 1899–1902 and The Boer War: The Struggle for South Africa.
13. Judd and Surridge, The Boer War.
14. Bossenbroek, De Boerenoorlog (original Dutch title; The Boer War).
15. Kruger, Good-bye Dolly Gray: A History of the Boer War.
16. Another edition was published as Historical Dictionary of the Anglo-Boer War.
17. Eloff (ed.), Oorlogsdagboekie van H.S. Oosterhagen.
18. Oberholster (ed.), Oorlogsdagboek van Jan F.E. Celliers, 118–382.
19. Green, Anglo-Boer War Blockhouses. See also his Anglo-Boer War Blockhouses: A Field Guide.
20. Hattingh and Wessels, Britse Fortifikasies in die Anglo-Boereoorlog (1899–1902).
21. Spies, Methods of barbarism?
22. Pretorius (ed.), Scorched earth.
23. De Wet, Three Years War (October 1899-June 1902).
24. Reitz, Commando.
25. See, for example, Shearing and Shearing, Commandant Gideon Scheepers, and the Search for his Grave and Jan Smuts and his Long Ride.
26. Preller, Scheepers se Dagboek en die Stryd in Kaapland (1 Okt. 1901–18 January 1902).
27. Roodt, Kaapse Rebel.
28. Kritzinger and McDonald, In the Shadow of Death.
29. Pieterse, Oorlogsavonture van Wynand Malan.
30. Constantine, The Guerrilla War in the Cape Colony during the South African War of 1899–1902.
31. Shearing, The Cape Rebel of the South African War, 1899–1902 and The Second Invasion of the Cape Colony during the Second Anglo-Boer War.
32. Snyman, “Rebelle-verhoor in Kaapland gedurende die Tweede Vryheidsoorlog met Spesiale Verwysing na die Militêre Howe, 1899–1902” and “Die Afrikaner in Kaapland, 1899–1902.”
33. Strydom, Die Kaapkolonie, 1899–1902: Skadevergoeding en die Rebelle in Ere Herstel.
34. The author”s endeavours to acquire electronic copies were unsuccessful and he was unable to consult them abroad. Consequently, these dissertations and theses are mentioned in the text for the sake of completeness, but they are not included in the Bibliography.
35. Steytler, “Bronnenavorsing in Groot-Brittanje, 1951–1954,” SA Argiefblad 8 (1966): 31; Transvaal Archives Depot (TAD; part of the National Archives, Pretoria), Inventory of Microfilms kept by the TAD, 147; TAD, Inventory of War Office Records (Copies) kept by the TAD, 2–5.
36. For more details with regard to these books, see again notes 8–14 above.
37. For more on the Boer strategy at the start of the war, see Wessels, “Die Boere se Strategie aan die Begin van die Anglo-Boereoorlog,” 227–242.
38. Report of His Majesty”s Commissioners Appointed to Inquire into the Military Preparations and Other Matters Connected with the War in South Africa, 21, 34.
39. Hancock and Van der Poel (eds), Selections from the Smuts Papers vol. 1, 314–329; Hancock, Smuts, 111–113.
40. National Army Museum (NAM), 5504–64-60: Lord Wolseley – Lord Roberts, 22 December 1899 (letter). For published versions of most of the correspondence referred to, see Wessels (ed.), Lord Roberts and the War in South Africa 1899–1902 and Wessels (ed.), Lord Kitchener and the War in South Africa 1899–1902.
41. De Wet, Three Years War, 79–80; Breytenbach, Geskiedenis van die Tweede Vryheidsoorlog, vol. 5, 159–167; Bossenbroek, De Boerenoorlog (e-book), 323–324.
42. For an in-depth study in this regard, see McLeod, The Psychological Impact of Guerrilla Warfare on the Boer forces during the Anglo-Boer War.
43. Van der Waag, “Boer Generalship and the Politics of Command,” 15–43.
44. Rabie, Generaal CR de Wet se Krygsleiding by Sannaspos en Groenkop, 5–30; Amery (ed.), The Times History, vol. 4, 29–50; De Wet, Three Years War, 84–92.
45. Breytenbach, Geskiedenis van die Tweede Vryheidsoorlog, vol. 5, 413–549; Amery (ed.), The Times History, vol. 4, 96–164.
46. British Library Manuscript Room, Lansdowne Papers, L(5)48: Lord Roberts – Lord Lansdowne, 7 June 1900 (letter).
47. Amery (ed.), The Times History, vol. 4, 264–265.
48. The Royal Archives (RA), VIC/P11/39: Lord Roberts – Queen Victoria, 5 July 1900 (letter).
49. Whittingham, “Savage Warfare”, 597.
50. British Library Manuscript Room, Lansdowne Papers, L(5)48: Lord Roberts – Lord Kitchener, 7 June 1900 (letter).
51. Callwell, Small Wars, 97–107.
52. De Bruin, “n Regshistoriese Studie van die Finale Oorgawe van die Oranje-Vrystaat se Konvensionele Magte gedurende die Anglo-Boereoorlog (1899–1902), passim; Pretorius, The Great Escape of the Boer Pimpernel, 23–209.
53. Breytenbach, Geskiedenis van die Tweede Vryheidsoorlog, vol. 6, 268–346; Amery (ed.), The Times History, vol. 4, 269–296.
54. NAM, Roberts Papers, 7101–23-126-3: Speech by Lord Roberts, Cape Town, 10 December 1900.
55. Magnus, Kitchener, 171–172.
56. Amery (ed.), The Times History, vol. 5, 99–108; Maurice (ed.) and Grant, History of the War in South Africa, vol. 4, 11–21.
57. Wessels, The Anglo-Boer War, 35, 54.
58. The Afrikaans language, to a large extent based on and derived from Dutch, was still in the process of development by the end of the nineteenth century. The majority of the Cape coloured population also spoke Dutch/Afrikaans.
59. Snyman, “Die Afrikaner in Kaapland, 1899–1902”, 62; Shearing and Shearing, The Rebel Record, vol. 1, v, viii.
60. Scholtz, Waarom die Boere die Oorlog Verloor het, 139–140.
61. De Wet et al., Die Buren in der Kapkolonie im Kriege mit England, 87–95.
62. Kritzinger and McDonald, In the Shadow of Death, 33 et seq.; Gomm, “Commandant P.H. Kritzinger in the Cape, December 1900-December 1901”, Military History Journal 1, no. 7 (1970), 30–32, 34.
63. Meintjes, Sword in the Sand, 101 et seq.; Preller, Scheepers se Dagboek en die Stryd in Kaapland, 71–112; Shearing and Shearing, Commandant Gideon Scheepers, passim.
64. Du Plessis, Oomblikke van Spanning, passim.
65. Scholtz, Generaal Christiaan de Wet as Veldheer, 321–370; De Wet, Three Years War, 229–238, 249–276; Maurice (ed.) and Grant, History of the War in South Africa, vol. 3, 393–396 and vol. 4, 77–91; Constantine, The Guerrilla War in the Cape Colony, 27–34.
66. Pieterse, Oorlogsavonture van genl. Wynand Malan, 125 et seq.
67. Fourie, Die Militêre Loopbaan van Manie Maritz, 35–45; Maritz, My Lewe en Strewe, 25–54.
68. Scholtz, Waarom die Boere die Oorlog Verloor het, 167–170.
69. Pyper, Generaal J.C. Smuts en die Tweede Vryheidsoorlog, 1899–1902, 64–141; Hancock, Smuts, 133–145; Scholtz, Waarom die Boere die Oorlog Verloor het, 173–178, 180; Shearing and Shearing, Jan Smuts and his Long Ride, passim; Burke, The Siege of O”Kiep, passim.
70. Pakenham, The Boer War, 526.
71. Constantine, The Guerrilla War in the Cape Colony, 153–156; Shearing and Shearing, Commandant Gideon Scheepers, 58, 70, 84–85, 93–95, 108–111, 116, 118.
72. Wessels, “Die Oorlogsherinneringe van kommandant Jacob Petrus Neser,” 89–93.
73. Nasson, Abraham Esau”s War, passim; Fourie, Die Militêre Loopbaan van Manie Maritz, 118–120; Schoeman, “Die Dood van Abraham Esau,” 56–66.
74. Snyman, “Die Afrikaner in Kaapland, 1899–1902,” 77; Shearing and Shearing, The Rebel Record, vol. 1, v, viii.
75. Pretorius, The A to Z of the Anglo-Boer War, 126, 457–458.
76. Snyman, “Die Afrikaner in Kaapland, 1899–1902,” 61–80.
77. The National Archives (TNA), Kitchener Papers, PRO 30/57/22/Y36: Lord Kitchener – Mr St John Brodrick, 22 March 1901 (letter); Pollock, Kitchener, 265–268. For the peace negotiations in general, see Du Preez, Vredespogings gedurende die Anglo-Boereoorlog tot Maart 1901, passim; Amery (ed.), The Times History, vol. 5, 183–193.
78. See, for example, Farwell, Queen Victoria’s Little Wars, 364–371.
79. For some historical background, see Malkin, “Counterinsurgency in the Age of Enlightment,” 1252–1275.
80. Callwell, Small Wars, 22, 25–28; Whittingham, “Savage Warfare,” 591–607. For Callwell”s influence with regard to other conflicts see, for example, Anglim, “Callwell versus Graziani,” 588–608.
81. For Kitchener and the guerrilla war in general see, for example, Arthur, Life of Lord Kitchener, vol. 2, 1–69.
82. Malkin, “Counterinsurgency in the Age of Enlightment,” 1252; “Savage Warfare,” 591.
83. Van der Merwe, Horses of the Anglo-Boer War, passim.
84. Amery (ed.), Times History, vol. 5, 67–68, 248; Woolmore, The Bushveldt Carbineers, passim; Davey (ed.), Breaker Morant and the Bushveldt Carbineers, passim; Witton, Scapegoats of the Empire, passim; Bleszynski, Shoot Straight you Bastards!, passim.
85. Grundlingh, The Dynamics of Treason, passim. See also Brits (ed.), Diary of a National Scout: P.J. du Toit 1900–1902, passim.
86. TNA, Kitchener Papers, PRO 30/57/22/Y126: Lord Kitchener – Mr St John Brodrick, 17 January 1902 (letter).
87. Report of His Majesty”s Commissioners Appointed to Inquire into the Military Preparations and Other Matters Connected with the War in South Africa), 34–35; Wessels, The Anglo Boer War, 116.
88. Bossenbroek, De Boerenoorlog (e-book), 440.
89. Breytenbach, Die Geskiedenis van die Tweede Vryheidsoorlog, vol. 1, 36, 38; Wessels, The Anglo-Boer War, 24.
90. See in this regard, for example, Pakenham, The Boer War, 540; Sampson and Hamilton, Anti-commando, passim.
91. Callwell, Small Wars, 43–56, 442; Malkin, “Transfers of Colonial (Dis)orders,” 4.
92. Army, Proclamations issued by Field-Marshal Roberts in South Africa, 8, 10–11.
93. South Africa, Correspondence relating to the Prolongation of Hostilities in South Africa, 6. For the Boers’ reactions with regard to the proclamations see, for example, Van Schoor, Marthinus Theunis Steyn, 221–228; Bossenbroek, De Boerenoorlog (e-book). 321.
94. Breytenbach, Die Geskiedenis van die Tweede Vryheidsoorlog, vol. 4, 85–86; Pretorius (ed.), Scorched Earth, 38.
95. Pretorius (ed.), Scorched Earth, passim; Spies, Methods of Barbarism?, passim; Downes, “Draining the Sea by Filling the Graves,” 420–444; Jewell, “Using Barbaric Methods in South Africa,” 1–18.
96. Otto, Die Konsentrasiekampe, passim; Kessler, The Black Concentration Camps of the Anglo-Boer War, passim; Van Heyningen, The Concentration Camps of the Anglo-Boer War, passim; Raath, The British Concentration Camps, passim.
97. Bodleian Library, Milner Papers, Microfilm 175, f.159: Lord Kitchener – Lord Milner, 12 February 1901 (letter).
98. NAM, Roberts Papers, 1971–01-23-33-29: Lord Kitchener – Lord Roberts, 24 May 1901 (letter).
99. Green, Anglo-Boer War Blockhouses, 265–269, passim; Hattingh and Wessels, Britse Fortifikasies in die Anglo- Boereoorlog (1899–1902), passim.
100. NAM, Roberts Papers, 1971–01-23-33-33: Lord Kitchener – Lord Roberts, 21 June 1901 (letter).
101. Green, Anglo-Boer War Blockhouses, 265–269; Maurice (ed.) and Grant, History of the War in South Africa, vol. 4, 568–576; Amery (ed.), The Times History of the War in South Africa, vol. 5, 396–412.
102. Callwell, Small Wars, 142.
103. NAM, Roberts Papers, 1971–01-23-33-14: Lord Kitchener – Lord Roberts, 8 February 1901 (letter). For some of the drives see, for example, Amery (ed.), The Times History, vol. 5, passim; Maurice (ed.) and Grant, History of the War in South Africa, vol. 4, passim.
104. Callwell, Small Wars, 126.
105. Constantine, The Guerrilla War in the Cape Colony, 177.
106. Snyman “Rebelle-verhoor in Kaapland gedurende die Tweede Vryheidsoorlog”, 1–73; Jordaan, Hoe zij stierven, passim. See also Magnus, Kitchener, 184.
107. TNA, Kitchener Papers, PRO 30/57/22/Y77: Lord Kitchener – Mr St John Brodrick, 26 July 1901 (letter).
108. RA, VIC/P10/127: Lord Kitchener – Queen Victoria, 30 June 1900 (letter).
109. RA, VIC/P14/17: Lord Kitchener – Queen Victoria, 12 October 1900 (letter).
110. RA, VIC/P12/66: Lord Kitchener – Queen Victoria, 25 August 1900 (letter).
111. The National Archives (TNA), PRO 30/57/1;6/R10(a): Queen Victoria – Lord Kitchener, 10 August 1900 (letter).
112. TNA, Kitchener Papers, PRO 30/57/22/Y13: Lord Kitchener – Mr St John Brodrick, 4 January 1901 (letter).
113. NAM, Roberts Papers, 1971–01-23-33-9: Lord Kitchener – Lord Roberts, 4 January 1901 (letter). See also NAM, Roberts Papers, 1971–01-23-33-10: Lord Kitchener – Lord Roberts, 11 January 1901 (letter).
114. Magnus, Kitchener, 184.
115. NAM, Roberts Papers, 1971–01-23-33-37: Lord Kitchener – Lord Roberts, 12 July 1901 (letter).
116. TNA, Kitchener Papers, PRO 30/57/22/Y95: Lord Kitchener – Mr St John Brodrick, 18 October 1901 (letter); NAM, Roberts Papers, 1971–01-23-33-55: Lord Kitchener – Lord Roberts, 1 November 1901 (letter).
117. TNA, Kitchener Papers, PRO 30/57/22/Y62: Lord Kitchener – Mr St John Brodrick, 2 June 1901 (letter).
118. NAM, Roberts Papers, 1971–23-122-2: Lord Roberts – Lieutenant-General J.D.P. French, 16 August 1901 (letter).
119. See, for example, NAM, Roberts Papers, 1971–23-122-1-86 and 1971–23-122-2-162, Lord Roberts – Lord Kitchener, 20 July 1901 and 25 October 1901 (letters).
120. Scholtz, Waarom die Boere die Oorlog Verloor het, 195.
121. Amery (ed.), Times History, vol. 5, 377–385, 294–296, 334–359, 364–376, 431–444; Maurice (ed.) and Grant, History of the War in South Africa, vol. 4, 203–204, 216–222, 293–397, 299–301, 305–315, 392–395; Moore, General Louis Botha”s Second Expedition to Natal, 14–102; De Wet, Three Years War, 337–345.
122. Naudé, Vechten en Vluchten, 323–336, 345–349, 352–354; Maurice (ed.) and Grant, History of the War in South Africa, vol. 4, 410–421, 494–504.
123. For more information in this regard, see Pretorius, “The Experience of the Bitter-ender Boer in the Guerrilla phase of the South African War,” 166–183.
124. Kestell and Van Velden, The Peace Negotiations, passim.
125. Malkin, “From Small Wars to Counterinsurgency”, 660–678.
126. Judd and Surridge, The Boer War, caption to photo number 11 in photo section between pp. 176–177.
127. Whittingham, “Savage Warfare,” 604.
128. For more on this debate, see Malkin, “Transfers of Colonial (Dis)orders,” 1–23
129. Snyman, “Die Afrikaner in Kaapland, 1899–1902”, 81–168.
130. Spiers, “The Learning Curve in the South African War,” 1–17.
131. Whittingham, “Savage Warfare,” 594.
132. Callwell, Small Wars, 27.
133. Pretorius, Life on Commando, 327–338.
134. Pakenham, The Boer War, 572; Wessels, The Anglo-Boer War, 79.
135. For more on this rebellion see, for example, Union of South Africa, Report on the Outbreak of the Rebellion and the policy of the Government with Regard to its Suppression; Grundlingh and Swart, Radelose Rebellie?; Bothma, Rebelspoor.
136. See, for example, Wessels, “The Anglo-Boer War and its Traumatic Consequences,” 160–173.
Additional information
Notes on contributors
André Wessels
André Wessels is a Senior Professor (Emeritus) and Research Fellow in the Department of History at the University of the Free State (UFS) in Bloemfontein, Republic of South Africa. He was a full-time staff member of the abovementioned Department of History until he retired at the end of 2021. From 2009 to 2018 he was Chairperson or Head of this Department, and Editor of the Journal for Contemporary History from 2007 to 2014. From 2009 to 2021, he was a Research Fellow and later Professorial Fellow in the School for Humanities and Social Sciences at the Australian Defence Force Academy in Canberra. He is the author or co-author of a large number of academic articles, and author, co-author or editor of eleven books. His main research focus is twentieth-century South African military history, with special reference to the Anglo-Boer War, and the history of the South African Navy.