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ABSTRACT
The rising tension between China and Vietnam with regard to the South China Sea has revised Hanoi's approach to its national defence policy. No longer benign and mute, it is taking an assertive stance and vocalising its opposition to the historical claims of Beijing. Hanoi is also becoming much more open to American presence in the South China Sea. This article examines the impact of geostrategic competition in the South China Sea on United States (US)–Vietnam and Indo-Vietnam bilateral relations, providing Hanoi an opportunity to challenge Beijing's illegal claims in the region.
Notes
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7 Tran et al., “Vietnam's Strategic Hedging vis-à-vis China: The Roles of the European Union and Russia.”
8 Kosal Path, “China's Economic Sanctions against Vietnam, 1975–1978,” The China Quarterly 212 (2012): 1040–58, www.jstor.org/stable/23509480 (accessed February 7, 2020).
9 The nine-dash line is a U-shaped dotted line adopted from the Chinese maps of the 1940s that represents Beijing's claim over the sea and land features contained within the line.
10 Carlyle A. Thayer, “China's New Wave of Aggressive Assertiveness in the South China Sea,” CISS, June 30, 2011, https://www.csis.org/analysis/china%E2%80%99s-new-wave-aggressive-assertiveness-south-china-sea (accessed September 28, 2020).
11 International Crisis Group, “Stirring Up the South China Sea (II): Regional Responses,” Asia Report 229 (July 24, 2012), https://www.files.ethz.ch/isn/151038/229-stirring-up-the-south-china-sea-ii-regional-responses.pdf (accessed February 2, 2017).
12 “Sea denial” is a military term describing attempts to deny the enemy's ability to use the sea without necessarily attempting to control the sea for its own use. See Wikipedia, “Sea Denial,” last modified September 20, 2020, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_denial (accessed May 4, 2021).
13 Amer Ramses, “China, Vietnam, and the South China Sea: Disputes and Disputes Management,” Ocean Development and International Law 45, no. 1 (2014): 17–40, doi:10.1080/00908320.2013.839160 (accessed January 7, 2019).
14 “Counter-Coercion Series: China–Vietnam Oil Rig Standoff,” CSIS, June 12, 2017, https://amti.csis.org/counter-co-oil-rig-standoff/ (accessed February 12, 2020).
15 Zachary Keck, “Second Thomas Shoal Tensions Intensify,” The Diplomat, March 13, 2014, https://thediplomat.com/2014/03/second-thomas-shoal-tensions-intensify/ (accessed October 10, 2019).
16 “US–China Strategic Competition in South and East China Seas: Background and Issues for Congress,” Congressional Research Service, August 28, 2020, https://fas.org/sgp/crs/row/R42784.pdf (accessed September 20, 2020).
17 Lan Anh and Nguyen Thi, “The South China Sea Award: Legal Implications for Vietnam,” Contemporary Southeast Asia 38, no. 3 (December 2016): 369–74.
18 Ibid.
19 Ibid.
20 See ASEAN, “Joint Statement of the Foreign Ministers of ASEAN Member States and China on the Full and Effective Implementation of the Declaration on the Conduct of Parties in the South China Sea,” July 25, 2016, http://asean.org/storage/2016/07/Joint-Statement-on-the-full-and-effective-implementation-of-the-DOC-FINAL.pdf (accessed January 29, 2017).
21 Hou Qiang, “China, ASEAN Countries Agree on COC Framework,” Xinhuanet, May 18, 2017, http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2017-05/18/c_136295814.htm (accessed June 18, 2017).
22 Nguyen Minh Quang, “Saving the China–ASEAN South China Sea Code of Conduct,” The Diplomat, June 29, 2019, https://thediplomat.com/2019/06/saving-the-china-asean-south-china-sea-code-of-conduct/ (accessed October 10, 2019).
23 Viet Hoang, “The Code of Conduct for the South China Sea: A long and Bumpy Road,” The Diplomat, September 28, 2020, https://thediplomat.com/2020/09/the-code-of-conduct-for-the-south-china-sea-a-long-and-bumpy-road/ (accessed February 23, 2021).
24 Derek Grossman, “Can Vietnam's Military Stand Up to China in the South China Sea?,” Asia Policy 25, no. 1 (2018): 113–34, doi:10.1353/asp.2018.0010 (accessed October 17, 2020).
25 Prashanth Parameswaran, “Vietnam gets Fifth Submarine from Russia,” The Diplomat, February 10, 2016, http://thediplomat.com/2016/02/vietnam-gets-fifth-submarine-from-russia/ (accessed December 10, 2017).
26 Derek Grossman, “Military Build Up in the South China Sea,” RAND Corporation, January 22, 2020, https://www.rand.org/content/dam/rand/pubs/external_publications/EP60000/EP68058/RAND_EP68058.pdf (accessed August 10, 2020).
27 Manuel Mogato, “Exclusive: Philippines, Vietnam to Explore Joint Patrols in South China Sea,” Reuters, April 13, 2016, http://in.reuters.com/article/southchinasea-philippines-vietnam-idINKCN0XA0MY (accessed March 13, 2017).
28 Marvin C. Ott and Julia Allen, “The Rebalance to Southeast Asia,” Foreign Policy Research Institute, April 23, 2015, https://www.fpri.org/article/2015/04/the-rebalance-to-southeast-asia/ (accessed May 12, 2020)
29 US Department of State, “US Relations with Vietnam,” Bureau of East Asian and Pacific Affairs, January 21, 2020, https://www.state.gov/u-s-relations-with-vietnam/ (accessed May 12, 2020).
30 US Department of State, “US Relations with Vietnam,” Bureau of East Asian and Pacific Affairs, August 25, 2016, https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/4130.htm (accessed May 12, 2020).
31 Ministry of National Defence, “2019 Viet Nam National Defence,” Socialist Republic of Vietnam, October 18, 2019, http://www.mod.gov.vn/wps/wcm/connect/08963129-c9cf-4c86-9b5c-81a9e2b14455/2019VietnamNationalDefence.pdf?MOD=AJPERES&CACHEID=08963129-c9cf-4c86-9b5c-81a9e2b14455 (accessed May 12, 2020).
32 US Department of State, “Chinese Coercion on Oil and Gas Activity in the South China Sea,” July 20, 2019, https://www.state.gov/chinese-coercion-on-oil-and-gas-activity-in-the-south-china-sea/ (accessed September 15, 2020).
33 Minnie Chan, “US Upgrades Defensive ‘Buffer’ in Pacific as China's Military Capabilities Increase,” South China Morning Post, July 9, 2020, https://www.scmp.com/news/china/military/article/3092555/us-upgrades-defensive-buffer-pacific-chinas-military (accessed October 15, 2020).
34 Le Hong Hiep, “America Free and Open Indo-Pacific Strategy: Vietnamese Perspective,” ISEAS Perspective 43 (2018), https://www.iseas.edu.sg/images/pdf/[email protected] (accessed February 12, 2019).
35 Derek Grossman, “How US–Vietnam Ties Might Go Off the Rails,” The Diplomat, February 1, 2020, https://thediplomat.com/2021/02/how-us-vietnam-ties-might-go-off-the-rails/ (accessed February 23, 2021).
36 See https://www.pmindia.gov.in/en/news_updates/press-statement-by-prime-minister-during-his-visit-to-vietnam/ (accessed May 5, 2019).
37 Ralph Jennings, “Vietnam is Chasing India to Escape the Grip of China,” Forbes, July 10, 2017, https://www.forbes.com/sites/ralphjennings/2017/07/10/vietnam-is-chasing-india-in-a-new-gambit-to-resist-china/#6c1309a35f59 (accessed November 18, 2017).
38 Ministry of External Affairs, “India–Vietnam Relations,” Government of India, September 2017, https://www.mea.gov.in/Portal/ForeignRelation/Bilateral_Relations_Website__Sept_17_.pdf (accessed October 10, 2020).
39 Jabin T. Jacob, “China and Vietnam: Neither Thick Friends nor Constant Antagonists,” Institute of Chinese Studies (ICS) Analysis 30 (2015), https://www.icsin.org/uploads/2015/05/15/e0027ca3a5b3be0710cd5a55a34a891c.pdf (accessed September 5, 2017).
40 Abhijit Singh, “India's Strategic Stake in the South China Sea,” Asia Policy 21 (January 2016): 14–20.
41 Abhijit Singh, “What China's Coercion at Sea Means for India,” ASPI: The Strategist, February 7, 2020, https://www.aspistrategist.org.au/what-chinas-coercion-at-sea-means-for-india/ (accessed February 9, 2020).
42 Ho Binh Minh, “India Offers $ 500 Million Defense Credit as Vietnam Sees Arms Boost,” Reuters, September 3, 2016, https://www.reuters.com/article/us-vietnam-india-idUSKCN11905U (accessed June 10, 2020).
43 Harsh Pant, “India and Vietnam: A Strategic Partnership in the Making,” RSIS Policy Brief, April 2018, https://www.rsis.edu.sg/wp-content/uploads/2018/04/PB180409_-India-and-Vietnam.pdf (accessed October 5, 2018).
44 Grossman, “Can Vietnam's Military Stand Up to China in the South China Sea?”
45 Pant, “India and Vietnam: A Strategic Partnership in the Making.”
46 “Full Speech of Vietnam President Tran Dai Quang at Nehru Museum Library,” The Economic Times, March 10, 2018, https://m.economictimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/full-speech-of-vietnam-president-tran-dai-quang-at-nehru-museum-library/articleshow/63212961.cms (accessed May15, 2020).
47 Ibid.
48 Tyler Rogoway, “Major Airfield Expansion on Wake Island Seen by Satellite as U.S. Preps for Pacific Fights,” The Drive, July 3, 2020, https://www.thedrive.com/the-war-zone/34404/big-airfield-expansion-on-wake-island-seen-by-satellite-as-u-s-preps-for-pacific-fight (accessed August 20, 2020).
49 Kirstin Downey, “The US Military is Pouring Hundreds of Millions of Dollars into Tiny Wake Island,” Civil Beat, October 15, 2019, https://www.civilbeat.org/2019/10/the-u-s-military-is-pouring-hundreds-of-millions-of-dollars-into-tiny-wake-island/ (accessed November 17, 2020).
50 “Vietnam, Philippines Criticize Chinese Military Drills in South China Sea,” South China Morning Post, July 2, 2020, https://www.scmp.com/news/asia/southeast-asia/article/3091615/vietnam-philippines-criticise-chinese-military-drills (accessed August 10, 2020).
51 Jennifer Hansler, “US Declares ‘Most’ of China's Claims in South China Sea Illegal,” CNN, July 14, 2020, https://edition.cnn.com/2020/07/13/politics/south-china-sea-pompeo-announcement/index.html (accessed August 10, 2020).
52 “Vietnam Protests Beijing's Expansion in Disputed South China Sea,” Reuters, April 19, 2020, https://www.reuters.com/article/us-vietnam-china-southchinasea/vietnam-protests-beijings-expansion-in-disputed-south-china-sea-idUSKBN2210M7 (accessed August 10, 2020).
53 Permanent Mission of the Socialist Republic of Viet Nam to the United Nations, “Note Verbale No. 22/HC-2020,” UN, March 30, 2020, https://www.un.org/Depts/los/clcs_new/submissions_files/mys_12_12_2019/VN20200330_ENG.pdf (accessed April 12, 2020).
54 Ben Werner, “Maritime Standoff between China and Malaysia Winding Down,” USNI News, May 13, 2020, https://news.usni.org/2020/05/13/maritime-standoff-between-china-and-malaysia-winding-down (accessed August 10, 2020).
55 Michael R. Pompeo, “US Position on Maritime Claims in the South China Sea,” US Department of State, July 13, 2020, https://www.state.gov/u-s-position-on-maritime-claims-in-the-south-china-sea/ (accessed September 28, 2020).
56 ASEAN, “Chairman's Statement of the 37th ASEAN Summit: Cohesive and Responsive,” asean.org, November 20, 2020, https://asean.org/chairmans-statement-37th-asean-summit/ (accessed December 15, 2020).
57 Derek Grossman, “Reviewing Vietnam's Struggle Option in the South China Sea,” The Diplomat, May 5, 2020, https://thediplomat.com/2020/05/reviewing-vietnams-struggle-options-in-the-south-china-sea/ (accessed July 15, 2020).
58 DPA, “Chinese Ship, Vietnamese Fishing Boat Collide in South China Sea,” South China Morning Post, April 3, 2020, https://www.scmp.com/news/asia/southeast-asia/article/3078286/chinese-ship-hits-and-sinks-vietnamese-fishing-boat-south (accessed February 23, 2021).
59 Rachel Zhang, “South China Sea: Vietnam Builds Up Defences against Beijing in Spratly Islands, Report Says,” South China Morning Post, February 22, 2021, https://www.scmp.com/news/china/diplomacy/article/3122648/south-china-sea-vietnam-builds-defences-against-beijing (accessed February 23, 2021).
60 Hiep, “America Free and Open Indo-Pacific Strategy: Vietnamese Perspective.”
61 Mike Ives, “Vietnam, Yielding to Beijing, Backs off South China Sea Drilling,” The New York Times, August 4, 2017, https://www.nytimes.com/2017/08/04/world/asia/vietnam-south-china-sea-repsol.html?mcubz=0 (accessed September 9, 2017).
62 Ibid.
63 Le Hong Hiep, “Vietnam's Hedging Strategy against China since Normalization,” Contemporary Southeast Asia 35, no. 3 (2013): 333–68, doi:10.1355/cs35-3b (accessed May 15, 2020).
64 Evelyn Goh, “Great Powers and Hierarchical Order in Southeast Asia: Analyzing Regional Security Strategies,” International Security 32, no. 3 (2007): 113–57, www.jstor.org/stable/30130520 (accessed February 7, 2019).
65 Storey, “Rising Tensions in the South China Sea: Southeast Asian Responses.”
Additional information
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Apila Sangtam
Apila Sangtam is a PhD scholar in Centre for Indo-Pacific Studies, School of International Studies, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi. Her area of research includes India-Vietnam relations, the US and the South China sea, FONOPs and its geostrategic significance, the US Free and Open Indo-Pacific strategy, India's Act East Policy and its implication for Southeast Asia.