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ABSTRACT
Security in the Sahel region has traditionally been studied through a realist prism, emphasising military concerns and the pre-eminent influence of great powers in shaping local security concerns. The paper reviews the securitisation initiatives in Africa's Sahel. It specifically explores Buzan and Waever's ‘securitisation' framework to re-evaluate securitising discourse and the contemporary initiatives of the EU, France and the U.S.A. in the Sahelian States. Its main observation is that the central security actors in the Sahel have over the years paid less attention to the securitisation of threats in the region. The paper provides indicators of successful securitisation, which includes but goes beyond speech acts. It underscores the reality that though the securitisation of Africa's Sahel has helped to legitimise the ‘war on terrorism', it has very little to offer for Africa’s development problems. The paper posits that securitisation, though a laudable initiative, does not sufficiently address root causes of terrorism, which are not military but social and economic. It thus recommends a holistic approach to addressing the security challenges in the Sahel; which must include: providing increased safe access for those who want to work in the West while also assisting to create economic prospects and opportunities in the region.
Notes
1 Venturi, ‘The EU’s Struggle with Normative Leadership’, 1.
2 Idahosa and Ilesanmi, ‘Conceptualisation of Regional Instability’, 10.
3 Mutimer, ‘Critical Security Studies’, 71.
4 Emmers, ‘Securitization’, 11.
5 Abrahamsen, ‘Blair's Africa’, 30; cf. Sour, ‘Strategy of Securitisation’, 6.
6 Appiagyei-Atua et al., ‘State Security, Securitisation and Human Security in Africa’,326.
7 Conteh-Morgan, ‘Militarization and Securitization in Africa’, 77–93.
8 Conteh-Morgan, ‘Militarization and Securitization in Africa’, 77–93.
9 Waever, ‘Securitisation’, 26.
10 UNISS, United Nations Integrated Strategy for the Sahel.
11 United Nations, Political and Peacebuilding Affairs.
12 Bérangère Rouppert, On the European strategy for the Sahel.
13 EEAS, Strategy for Security and Development in the Sahel.
14 European Union, External Action Service.
15 Senate Hearing 111-406, Examining U.S. Counterterrorism Priorities.
16 Simon, Alexander, and Amelia, ‘A Coherent EU Strategy for the Sahel’.
17 Norwegian Refugee Council, The Sahel.
18 Wæver, ‘Securitisation and Desecuritisation’, 46–86.
19 Buzan, Wæver, and de Wilde, Security: A New Framework for Analysis, 25.
20 Waever, ‘Securitisation’, 55.
21 Buzan, Wæver, and de Wilde, Security: A New Framework for Analysis, 26.
22 Kjaer, ‘Securitization and the Power Language’, 14.
23 McDonald, ‘Constructivisms’, 72.
24 Wæver, ‘Securitisation’, 57.
25 Njoku and Romanuk, Removing the ‘Westphalian Straitjacket: Audience in Securitization Theory’, 3.
26 Buzan, Waever and De Wilde, Security: A New Framework or Analysis, 25.
27 Eroukhmanoff, ‘Securitisation Theory’, 104–9.
28 Chafer, Cumming, and van der Velde, ‘France’s Interventions in Mali and the Sahel’; Roe, Audience(s) and Emergency Measures.
29 Chafer, Cumming, and van der Velde, ‘France’s Interventions in Mali and the Sahel’.
30 Waever, ‘Securitisation’, 57.
31 Njoku and Romanuk, Removing the ‘Westphalian Straitjacket, 3.
32 Ole, ‘Aberystwyth, Paris, Copenhagen’, 13.
33 Buzan, Waever and De Wilde, Security: A New Framework, 71.
34 Ibid.
35 Njoku and Romanuk, Removing the ‘Westphalian, 4.
36 Bigo and McCluskey, ‘What is a PARIS Approach’.
37 Balzacq, A Theory of Securitization, 2.
38 Bigo, ‘Internal and External Aspects of Security’, 385.
39 Ibid., 400–1.
40 Njoku and Romanuk, Removing the ‘Westphalian, 4.
41 Balzacq, ‘The Three Faces of Securitization’, 171–201.
42 Côté, ‘Agents Without Agency’, 541–58.
43 Wilkinson, ‘The Copenhagen School on Tour in Kyrgyzstan’, 5–25.
44 Huysmans, ‘Revisiting Copenhagen’, 479–505.
45 Balzacq, ‘Constructivism and Securitisation Studies’, 56–72.
46 Emmers, ‘Securitization’, 109–25.
47 Buzan, Wæver, and de Wilde, Security: A New Framework for Analysis, 25.
48 Peoples and Vaughan-Williams, Critical Security Studies: An Introduction.
49 Wæver, ‘Securitisation and Desecuritisation’.
50 Williams, ‘Words, Images, Enemies’, 511–31.
51 Abrahamsen, ‘Blair's Africa’, 30.
52 Lotfi, ‘Strategy of Securitisation’, 6.
53 Davitti and Ursu, Why Securitising the Sahel Will Not Stop Migration.
54 Guilherme and Nilton, ‘Securitisation in Africa in the 21st Century’.
55 Conteh-Morgan, ‘Militarization and Securitization in Africa’.
56 Behr, ‘How Is the Securitization of Africa Addressing’.
57 Trombetta, ‘Linking Climate-Induced Migration and Security’, 131–47.
58 Murphy, ‘Stability in the Sahel Region Will Require’.
59 Idahosa and Bakare, ‘Conceptualisation of Regional Instability’.
60 Gaffey, ‘African Jihadi Groups Unite and Pledge Allegiance to Al-Qaeda’.
61 Business Standard, ‘Three Islamic Extremist Groups of Mali Merge’.
62 Memier Marc, ‘AQMI et Al-Mourabitoun’.
63 RFI, ‘Niger: 15 militaires tués lors d’une attaque’.
64 Cummings, What Is Ansarul Islam?.
65 Foreign Terrorist Organizations, Bureau of Counterterrorism Country Reports.
66 Rychovská, ‘Securitisation and the Power of Threat Framing’, 9–32.
67 Allawi et al., ‘Politics, Media Propaganda’, 1–21.
68 Carnegie, ‘Endowment for International Peace’.
69 United States Institute of Peace, Terrorism in the Horn of Africa, 113.
70 Lyman, ‘Introduction’, x.
71 Center for Strategic and International Studies, Integrating 21st Century Development, vi.
72 Walker and Seegers, ‘Securitisation: The Case of Post-9/11’, 28.
73 Tallent, ‘Eliminating Terrorist Sanctuaries’.
74 Royce, Africa and the War on Terror.
75 Mull, US Africa Command.
76 Walker and Seegers, ‘Securitisation: The Case of Post-9/11’, 40.
77 Gaddis, Surprise, Security and the American Experience, 4–5.
78 Royce, Africa and the War on Terror.
79 Hussain and Bagguley, ‘Securitized Citizens’, 715–34.
80 Mindock, ‘Trump’s Travel Ban on Six Muslim-Countries’.
81 Proclamation 9645—Enhancing Vetting Capabilities and Processes for Detecting Attempted Entry.
82 Hussain and Bagguley, ‘Securitized Citizens’, 715–34; cf. Rytter and Pedersen, ‘A Decade of Suspicion’, 2303–21; Cf. Cesari, Securitisation of Islam in Europe, 430–49.
83 Allawi et al., ‘Politics, Media Propaganda, Counter-Terrorism’, 1–21.
84 ‘Proclamation on Ending Discriminatory’.
85 Valverde, ‘A Look at the Data on Domestic Terrorism’.
86 Walker and Seegers, ‘Securitisation: The Case of Post-9/11’, 40.
87 Ibid.
88 Ibid.
89 Lesley, The Trans Sahara Counter-Terrorism Partnership, 22–4.
90 Global Security, Trans Sahara Counterterrorism Partnership.
91 Pope, Eliminating Terrorist Sanctuaries.
92 Lysias, Uzodike, and Isike, ‘The United States Africa Command’, 264–81.
93 Bray, The Trans-Sahara Counterterrorism Partnership.
94 Lotfi, Strategy of Securitisation in African Sahel, 6–18; cf. Emily Hunt. Islamist Terrorism in Northwestern Africa, 12.
95 Flintlock, ‘Secrets in the Sand Part I’.
96 Archer and Popovic, The Trans-Saharan Counter-Terrorism Initiative, 44.
97 Idahosa, Degterev, and Abidoye, ‘Strategic Fight Against Terrorism’, 727–31.
98 Walker and Seegers, ‘Securitisation: The Case of Post-9/11’, 40.
99 Archer and Popovic, The Trans-Saharan Counter-Terrorism Initiative, 42.
100 USAID, Sub-Saharan Africa.
101 Dagne, Africa and the War on Terrorism.
102 US Dept. of State, Patterns of Global Terrorism.
103 Archer and Popovic, The Trans-Saharan Counter-Terrorism Initiative, 42.
104 Ibid., 42–3.
105 Ibid., 57.
106 Ibid., 57.
107 Ibid.
108 Wæver, ‘Securitization and Desecuritization’, 65.
109 Archer and Popovic, The Trans-Saharan Counter-Terrorism Initiative, 40.
110 Burke, ‘Why Does France Keep Getting Attacked’.
111 Ibid.
112 Idahosa, Degterev, and Abidoye, ‘Strategic Fight Against Terrorism’, 727–31.
113 CharBonneau, France and the New Imperialism.
114 Sarkozy, ‘The French White Paper on Defence and National Security’,44.
115 Ibid.
116 USAID, Sub-Saharan Africa.
117 France May Intervene to Back Chad’s Leader, International Herald Tribune.
118 Fisher and Anderson, ‘Authoritarianism and the Securitization’, 131–51.
119 Sarkozy, ‘The French White Paper on Defence and National Security’, 42.
120 Ibid., 42–3.
121 Ibid., 43.
122 Roe, ‘Audience(s) and Emergency Measures’, 635.
123 Tanvé, ‘The Successful Legitimization of the French Interventions in Sahel’.
124 Ibid.
125 Resolution 2071, Adopted by the Security Council.
126 Bannelier and Christakis, ‘Under the UN Security Council's Watchful Eyes’, 857.
127 Tanvé, ‘The Successful Legitimization of the French Interventions in Sahel’.
128 Ministere de la Défense, République Française, ‘Operation Barkhane’. 2016. Accessed 23 April, 2020, http://www.defense.gouv.fr/operations/sahel/dossier-depresentation-de-l-operation-barkhane/operation-barkhaneLaurentian.
129 Gnanguênon, Operation Barkhane: A Show of Force and Political Games.
130 Charbonneau, ‘Intervention in Mali’, 421.
131 Chafer, Cumming, and van der Velde, ‘France’s Interventions in Mali and the Sahel’, 490.
132 Tanye, The Successful Legitimization of the French Interventions in Sahel.
133 Abourabi and Durand de Sanctis, ‘L'émergence de puissances africaines de sécurité’; Haine L’endiguement renforcé.
134 Leboeuf and Quénot-Suarez, La Politique Africaine de la France sous François Hollande.
135 Haine, L’endiguement renforcé.
137 See: www.legifrance.gouv.fr.
138 Stigall, ‘The French Military Intervention in Mali’, 20.
139 Ibid., art. 1.
140 CharBonneau, France and the New Imperialism.
141 Idahosa, Degterev, and Abidoye, ‘Strategic Fight Against Terrorism’, 727–31.
142 Reeve and Pelter, From New Frontier to New Normal, 8.
143 Eroukhmanoff, ‘Securitisation Theory’, 104–9.
144 Chafer, Cumming, and van der Velde, ‘France’s Interventions in Mali and the Sahel’, 485.
145 Mallet and Keohane, ‘France Urges Europeans to Help Crush Islamist’.
146 Kostro and Boyle, French Counterterrorism in the Sahel.
147 Ibid.
148 Schmidthäussler and Niemann, The Logic of EU Policy-Making.
149 Ibid.
150 Daria and Ursu, Why Securitising the Sahel Will Not Stop Migration.
151 Lotfi, ‘Strategy of Securitisation’, 6–18.
152 Lebovich, Beyond Securitisation in the Sahel.
153 EU, Council Conclusions on the Sahel.
154 Strategy for Security and Development in the Sahel, European Union External Action Service.
155 Ibid., 4.
156 Ibid., 2.
157 Ibid., 4.
158 Ibid., 1.
159 Schmidthäussler and Niemann, The Logic of EU Policy-Making.
160 Abiri, ‘Security and Migration’.
161 EU Sahel Strategy Regional Action Plan 2015–2020.
162 Council Conclusions on the Sahel Regional Action Plan 2015–2020.
163 Ibid.
164 Tebas, ‘EU-SAHEL. Regional Action Plan (2015–2020)’.
165 EU Sahel Strategy Regional Action Plan 2015–2020, 4.
166 Ibid., 6.
167 Ibid.
168 Davitti and Ursu, Why Securitising the Sahel Will Not Stop Migration.
169 Lebovich, Beyond Securitisation in the Sahel.
170 Davitti and Ursu, Why Securitising the Sahel Will Not Stop Migration.
171 Council of European Union, The Sahel is a strategic priority for the EU.
172 Venturi, ‘The EU’s Struggle with Normative Leadership’.
173 High Representative of the European Union, Shared Vision, Common Action, 36.
174 Council of the European Union, The Africa-EU Strategic Partnership, 3.
175 Venturi, ‘The EU’s Struggle with Normative Leadership’.
176 Council of European Union, The Sahel is a Strategic Priority for the EU.
177 Ibid.
178 Davitti and Ursu, Why Securitising the Sahel Will Not Stop Migration.
179 Buzan, Wæver, and de Wilde, Security: A New Framework for Analysis.
180 European Commission, Speech by President Jean-Claude Juncker.
181 Eroukhmanoff, ‘Securitisation Theory’, 104–9.
182 Abrahamsen, ‘Blair's Africa’.
183 European Commission, Speech by President Jean-Claude Juncker.
184 Waever, ‘Securitisation’, 11.
185 Linking Security and Development a Plea for the Sahel, 21–5.
186 Eizenga, Long Trends Across Security and Development.
187 Linking Security and Development, 22.
188 Sahu, ‘Referent Object, Securitising Actors and the Audience’.
189 Buzan and Waever, Regions and Powers, 71.
190 Donnelly, ‘The US “War on Terror” in Africa’, 115–36.
191 Rotberg, ‘Failed States in a World of Terror’, 127–41.
192 Behr, ‘How Is the Securitization of Africa Addressing’.
193 Abrahamsen, ‘Blair’s Africa’, 55–80.
194 Behr, ‘How Is the Securitization of Africa Addressing’.
195 Stearns, ‘Niger Says Libyan Instability’.
196 Hintjens, ‘Failed Securitisation Moves During the 2015’, 185–95.
197 Eizenga, Long Term Trends across Security and Development in the Sahel.
198 Bish, Niger: Has Securitisation Stopped Traffickers.
199 Eamonn, Fighting Poverty to Fight Terrorism.
200 Bourbeau, ‘Moving Forward Together’, 187–206.
201 Hintjens, ‘Failed Securitisation Moves During the 2015’, 181–96.
Additional information
Notes on contributors
Stephen Osaherumwen Idahosa
Stephen Osaherumwen Idahosa is a Foreign Service Officer in MFA Nigeria and PhD researcher at the Department of Theory and History of International Relations, Peoples' Friendship University of Russia (RUDN University). He currently researches the role of major actors in the peace, security and stability of the Sahel Region and has authored a number of papers, such as “Conceptualisation of regional instability in Sahel: modelling ABM-AfriLand-Rebel Approach”, “Promulgation of Instability in the Sahel Region”, An Analysis of the Nigerian Foreign Policy, among others.
Denis Andreevich Degterev
Professor Denis Andreevich Degterev is Head of the Department of Theory and History of International Relations, RUDN University, Moscow, Russia, Professor in MGIMO-University, MFA of Russia, and Professor in Saint Petersburg University, Russian Federation. He has edited and authored a number of papers such as Strategic Fight Against Terrorism: A Narrative of its Implication in the Sahel Region; Dynamic Chaos, Conflicts in the Greater Middle East and Global Governance Mechanisms in the XXI Century amongst sundry publications.
Solomon Ijeweimen Ikhidero
Solomon Ijeweimen Ikhidero holds a Doctorate Degree in Religious/Cultural Studies from Ambrose Alli University, Edo State. He is a writer and publisher. His research and publications have been in the area of religion/ethics, politics, and conflict resolution and has co-authored: Dynamics of Language Politics in Religious Expression in African Indigenous, A Moral Justice for Africa: The Benin (Nigeria) amongst sundry publications.