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ABSTRACT
Whaling has been a consistent theme in Australia’s relations with Japan since the 1930s, Australia having endeavoured to regulate, restrict, or bring to a complete halt Japan’s Antarctic whaling virtually since it began. Australia’s motivations have been mixed, involving at various points, some combination of protection of Australia’s coastal whaling industry, concern for Australia’s security, for safeguarding Australia’s Antarctic territorial claim, and more recently, concern for Australia’s whale-watching industry and/or for the whales. Since environmental consciousness became a primary factor in the 1970s, Australian policy has been aligned with that of anti-whaling non-governmental organizations (NGOs), albeit that certain actions of NGOs have caused difficulties for the Australian Government. Law – inclusive of legal argument in the course of diplomacy, domestic laws, and international litigation – has been a mechanism of influence used by the Australian Government and NGOs. This paper traces Australia’s legal opposition from its beginnings until Japan’s announcement in December 2018 that it would end Antarctic whaling.
Acknowledgment
This is a revised version of a paper presented at the workshop ‘Historicizing the Regulation of Ocean Resources in International Law: from Common Heritage to Sovereignty and Back’, hosted by UNSW Sydney Faculty of Law in November 2018. This workshop was funded by the UNSW Law Workshop Support Scheme, and the project ‘The high seas and the deep oceans: Representations, resources and regulatory governance (3ROceans)’, funded by the Norwegian Research Council.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.
Notes on contributors
Professor Shirley Scott is Head of the School of Humanities and Social Sciences at UNSW Canberra. Her research addresses the political functioning of international law on subjects including climate change governance, Antarctica, and whaling. She is the author of, inter alia, International Law in World Politics (Lynne Rienner 3rd ed 2017) and joint editor with Charlotte Ku of Climate Change and the UN Security Council (Edward Elgar 2018). She is a former Research Chair of the Australian Institute of International Affairs.
Lucia Meilin Oriana is an Australian solicitor of thirty-eight years standing and has more recently taught and written in the areas of international law, politics and international relations. Her current research interests span the fields of international law, politics and film studies.
Notes
1. N.A. Mackintosh to H.G. Maurice, 26 April 1938.National Archives of Australia (NAA): A981/1, I:wha5 Pt 1.
2. ‘Antarctica and Antarctic Whaling’, Pacific Conference Papers Section 1, No. 11, NAA: A1066/4, I: IC45/38/2.
3. Cecil Dormer, British Legation, Oslo, 14 November 1934. NAA: A981/1, I: Whaling and Sealing 17.
4. ‘The Japanese Whaling Industry’, US Department of State (DOS), Central Files 894.628/1-3147.
5. Ibid.
6. US Treaty Series No. 880; AJIL Supp. Vol. 34 (1936), p. 167.
7. Great Britain had delayed ratification due to the ‘pressure of essential legislation in Parliament’. Vallance (Citation1937, 114), quoted in Hayden (Citation1970, 155).
8. Note Verbale from British Embassy, Tokyo to Government of Japan, 1 July 1935. NAA: A981/1, I: Whaling & Sealing 17.
9. Note Verbale from Gaimusho, 12 March 1936. NAA: A981/1, I: Whaling and Sealing 17.
10. Communication from Japanese Department of Foreign Affairs to Norwegian Legation, 31 October 1935. NAA A981/1, I: Whaling & Sealing 17.
11. Douglas Mawson to Mr Strahan, 26 October 1932. NAA: A461/9 I; T345/1/1 Att 1.
12. Cabinet Submission by W.M. Hughes, Minister for External Affairs, 10 May 1938. NAA: A461/9 I:J345/1/1 Pt 3.
13. Australia, Commonwealth Statutory Rules 1901-1956, p. 5 505.
14. Cabinet Submission by W.M. Hughes, Minister for External Affairs, 10 May 1938. NAA: A461/9 I:J345/1/1 Pt 3.
15. John Harris, Director of Navigation to the Secretary, Department of Commerce, 14 October 1936. NAA: A981/1, I: wha2.
16. The Whaling Act [Clth] (1935) s 11
17. Ibid s 6.
18. Ibid s 4(1)
19. US Treaty Series No. 933; AJIL Supp. Vol 34 (1940), p. 106.
20. Alfred Stirling to The Secretary, Department of External Affairs, 19 March 1938. NAA: A432/85, I38/696.
21. US Treaty Series, No. 944; AJIL Supp. Vol 34 (1940), p.115.
22. Alfred Stirling to The Secretary, Department of External Affairs, 19 March 1938. NAA: A432/85, I38/696.
23. N.H. Shaw, Lieutenant-Commander, RAN for District Naval Officer, WA to the Secretary, Naval Board, Melbourne, 26 January 1938. NAA: A432/85, I38/697.
24. H.V.C. Thorby, Minister for Defence to W.M. Hughes, Minister for External Affairs, 11 February 1938. NAA A432/85, I38/697.
25. John K. Davis, Director of Navigation to the Secretary, Marine Branch, Department of Commerce, 3 March 1938. NAA: A432/85, I38/697.
26. W.M. Hughes to the Minister for Defence, 2 March 1938. NAA: A981/1 I: wha17.
27. Opinion No. 39 of 1938. NAA: A432/85, I38/696.
28. W.R. Hodgson, Secretary, to Alfred Stirling Esq., 19 May 1938. NAA: A981/1 I: Whaling & Sealing 17.
29. An informal conference was held in London on 17 July 1939 to review the results of the 1938 and 1939 whaling seasons.
30. See Lyons to S.M. Bruce, High Commissioner, London, 26 August 1936. NAA: A981/1 I: wha2.
31. ‘Presidential address by Sir Donald Cameron, K.C.M.G., D.S.O., V.D., M.Pl, at the Annual Meeting of the Royal Geographical Society of Queensland on 14th August, 1937’. NAA: A981/1 I: wha 1.
32. ‘Japanese Whalers’, Sydney Morning Herald, 15 March 1937. NAA: A981/1, I: wha 17.
33. ‘Whaling - Australian Industry', Statement by the Prime Minister for the Press, 20 November 1945. NAA: A461/9, I:Q345/1/1.
34. Prime Minister to P.A. McBride, MP, 12 November 1947. NAA: A1068/7, I: Pi47/3/1/4.
35. ‘Procurement of Whaling Mother Ship and Whale Catcher Vessels for Australian Whale Industry’, 13 February 1948. NAA: A1838/283, I: 479/3/4/2 Pt 1.
36. External to Crotonate, 28 June 1947. NAA: A2908/V, I: W26 Pt 2. See also `Japanese Antarctic Whaling - 1947/48’. NAA: A605/1, I: M15/4/7.
37. Memorandum on the Proposed Japanese Antarctic Whaling Expedition during 1947–48 season from LE-Mr Fahy to FE-Mr Vincent, 19 May 1947, US National Archives 894.628/5-1947.
38. Final preambular paragraph, International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling opened for signature 2 December, 1946, 161 UNTS 72 (entered into force 10 November 1948) (ICRW).
39. For Press: ‘International Whaling Conference. Statement by the Minister for Commerce and Agriculture, The Rt Hon. John McEwen, MP, 15 June 1955. NAA: A463/17 56/1270.
40. Aide Memoire from Canberra [to Embassy in Tokyo], 14 July 1960. NAA: A1838/1 704/8/1 Pt 7.
41. L.R. McIntyre to Secretary, External Affairs, `International Whaling Commission’, 21 July 1960. NAA: A1838/1 704/8/1 Pt 7.
42. Australian Embassy Tokyo to Dr J.W.C. Cumes, 16 February 1961. NAA: A1838/1 704/8/1 Pt 8.
43. J.V. Moroney, Secretary to The Secretary, External Affairs, 3 June 1961. NAA: A1838/1 704/8/1 Pt 8.
44. Ibid.
45. Opening Statement by Japan, 32nd Annual Meeting of the International Whaling Commission, IWC/32/OS Japan.
46. Whale Protection Act [1980] (Clth) s 9. The Act also provided for powers of arrest (s 24), general powers of inspection (s 25), seizure and forfeiture of vessels involved the commission of an offense and criminal conviction and fines up $50,000 for a foreign whaling vessel entering an Australian port (s 31).
47. New Zealand, United Kingdom, Norway and France.
48. Acting Minister for Foreign Affairs, Senator Bob McMullan and Minister for Environment, Sport and Territories, Senator Faulkner, Joint Statement `Australia Regrets Japanese Scientific Whaling Program in Southern Ocean Sanctuary’, 23 December 1994.
49. Environmental Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act [Clth] (1999) s 475.
50. Humane Society International Inc v Kyodo Senpaku Kaisha Ltd [2004] FCA 1510.
51. Humane Society International Inc v Kyodo Senpaku Kaisha Ltd [2005] FCA 664, [5]; Australia’s claim to Antarctic territory is only recognised by four States: Norway, New Zealand, United Kingdom and France.
52. Ibid [38].
53. Ibid [13 and 14].
54. Ibid [28].
55. Humane Society International Inc v Kyodo Senpaku Kaisha Ltd [2006] FCA 116 [12].
56. Ibid [25].
57. Ibid [19 - 21].
58. Ibid [24].
59. Humane Society International Inc v Kyodo Senpaku Kaisha Ltd [2008] FCA 3
60. Ibid.
61. Humane Society International Inc v Kyodo Senpaku Kaisha Ltd [2015] FCA 1275
62. Sue Higginson, EDO NSW CEO commented: ‘The Information Commissioner’s decision is a significant win for transparency and accountability as to how the Australian Government has dealt with Japanese whaling in the Australian Whale Sanctuary in Antarctica. Whales are protected from harm under Australian law, so any evidence showing harm is a matter of significant public interest’ (Ella Citation2017).
63. Sea Shepherd Australia and Department of Immigration and Border Protection (Freedom of Information) [2017] AICmr 48 (23 May 2017).
64. Ibid.
65. See inter alia Sea Shepherd website: https://www.seashepherdglobal.org/latest-news/supressed-australian-whaling-footage/; you tube: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1AE8Mhw-PNA.
66. Whaling in the Antarctic (Australia v. Japan: New Zealand Intervening) Judgment, Application Instituting Proceedings, 31 May 2010. https://www.icj-cij.org/en/case/148/institution-proceedings.
67. ‘Whaling in the Antarctic (Australia v. Japan). Closure of Written Proceedings’, International Court of Justice Press Release, 18 May 2012.
68. Whaling in the Antarctic (Australia v Japan) Judgment of 31 March 2014, Merits, para 247(2).
69. Ibid paras 247(3), 247(4), 247(5), and 247(6).
70. Ibid para 247(7).
71. Japan, ‘Declarations Recognizing the Jurisdiction of the Court as Compulsory’, 6 October 2015, International Court of Justice Website. https://www.icj-cij.org/en/declarations/jp.