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ABSTRACT
Beginning with UN Security Council Resolution 1718 in 2006, the international community has imposed a series of sanctions against North Korea in an effort to halt the progress of its nuclear program. These sanctions forbid most forms of the direct or indirect supply, sale, or transfer of arms, technical training, advice, services, or assistance, yet North Korea’s historical military and police cooperation with certain partner states has continued. In recent years, South Korea has targeted some of these states, including Uganda, with summit diplomacy, offers of security cooperation, and economic incentives to encourage them to distance themselves from North Korea. The case of Uganda illustrates some of the achievements and the challenges of international sanctions diplomacy.
Notes
1 UNSCR 1718, S/RES/1718 (2006), October 14, 2006. See, in particular, operative paragraphs (OP) 8 and 12. The resolution decided under the Article 7 of the UN Charter that “All Member States shall prevent the direct or indirect supply, sale or transfer to the DPRK [Democratic People’s Republic of Korea], through their territories or by their nationals, or using their flag vessels or aircraft, and whether or not originating in their territories.”
2 UNSCR 1874, S/RES/1874 (2009), June 12, 2009, OP14 “decides to authorize all Member States to, and that all Member States shall, seize and dispose of items the supply, sale, transfer, or export of which is prohibited” in UNSCR 1718.
3 Ibid., OP 26.
4 UNSCR 2087, S/RES/2087 (2013), January 14, 2013.
5 UNSCR 2094, S/RES/2094 (2013), March 7, 2013; UNSCR 2270, S/RES/2270 (2016), March 2, 2016; UNSCR 2321, S/RES/2321 (2016), November 30, 2016.
6 UNSCR 2371, S/RES/2371 (2017), August 5, 2017; UNSCR 2375, S/RES/2375 (2017), September 11, 2017; UNSCR 2397, S/RES/2397 (2017), December 27, 2017.
7 UNSC, S/2019/171, “Report of the Panel of Experts Established Pursuant to Resolution 1874 (2009),” March 5, 2019, pp. 4–5.
8 Ibid., pp. 30–63.
9 UNSC, S/2010/571, “Final Report of the Panel of Experts Established Pursuant to Resolution 1874 (2009),” November 5, 2010, pp. 25–27.
10 Andrea Berger, Target Markets: North Korea’s Military Customers in the Sanctions Era (London: Royal United Services Institute, 2015), pp. 80–85; Katsuhisa Furukawa, Kitachōsen no kaku no shikin-gen ‘Kokuren sōsa’ hiroku [The financial source of North Korea’s nuclear program, report of the United Nations’ investigation] (Tokyo: Shincho-sha, 2017), pp. 151–75.
11 Andrea Berger, “North Korea’s Military Partnerships under Threat?” 38North, June 17, 2016, <www.38north.org/2016/06/aberger061716/>.
12 Sam Kahamba Kutesa, Uganda, “We Are Disengaging the Cooperation We Are Having with North Korea, as a Result of UN Sanctions,” Diplomatic Magazine, January 13, 2017, pp. 11–12, <https://mofa.go.ug/files/downloads/Diplomatic%20Magazine.pdf>; “Uganda Cuts Ties with North Korea,” NBS News Uganda, May 29, 2016, <https://youtu.be/W3t9ALAXdoE>.
13 Yoweri Kaguta Museveni, Sowing the Mustard Seed (Kampala: Morn, 1997), p. 30; Janet Kataaha Museveni, My Life’s Journey (Kampala: Fountain, 2011), p. 70.
14 János Taraba, “Hungarian Embassy in the DPRK, Report, Military Cooperation between Uganda and North Korea,” Wilson Center Digital Archive, International History Declassified, July 10, 1975, <www.digitalarchive.wilsoncenter.org/document/115817>.
15 Berger, Target Markets, pp. 80–84; Rita M. Bymes, Uganda: A Country Study (Washington, DC: GPO for Library of Congress, 1992), <https://ia601208.us.archive.org/22/items/ugandacountrystu00byrn_0/ugandacountrystu00byrn_0.pdf>.
16 Defense Intelligence Agency, “North Korea, the Foundations for Military Strength, Chapter 3A, Foreign Policy Goals, Exporting Military and Economic Support,” October 1991, <www.fas.org/irp/dia/product/knfms/knfms_chp3a.html>.
17 State House of Uganda, “Address by Yoweri Kaguda Museveni at the 72nd Session of the United Nations General Assembly,” press release, September 20, 2017, <www.statehouse.go.ug/media/speeches/2017/09/20/address-he-yoweri-kaguta-museveni-president-72nd-session-un-general-assemb>; Barbara Among, “Uganda, Tanzania in Trouble with UN over ‘Arms Deals’ with North Korea,” East African, April 14, 2014, <www.theeastafrican.co.ke/news/Uganda--Tanzania-on-UN-radar-over-North-Korea-links-/2558-2277334-mhe3noz/index.html>.
18 UNSC, S/2013/337, “Report of the Panel of Experts Established Pursuant to Resolution 1874 (2009),” June 11, 2013, Annex XI.
19 UNSC, S/2014/147, “Report of the Panel of Experts Established Pursuant to Resolution 1874 (2009),” March 6, 2014, pp. 36–38.; UPF, “Joint Communiqué,” Facebook, June 14, 2013. The original Facebook post was deleted, but the text can be found in: Andrew Bagala, “Ugandan Minister: We’ll Make Friends with Whomever We Please,” NK News, June 14, 2013, <www.nknews.org/2013/06/ugandan-minister-well-make-friends-with-whomever-we-please/>.
20 Andrew Bagala, “Uganda to Learn from N. Korea—Kayhura,” Daily Monitor, June 13, 2013, p. 8, <www.monitor.co.ug/News/National/Uganda-to-learn-from-North-Korea---Kayihura/688334-1881202-16ocpv/index.html>.
21 UNSC, S/2016/157, “Report of the Panel of Experts Established Pursuant to Resolution 1874 (2009),” February 24, 2016, Section C, pp. 42–43.
22 UNSC, S/2014/147, “Report of the Panel of Experts Established Pursuant to Resolution 1874 (2009),” March 6, 2014, pp. 36–38.
23 UNSC, S/2015/131, “Report of the Panel of Experts Established Pursuant to Resolution 1874 (2009),” February 23, 2015, pp. 38–39, 100–01; Geoffrey Mutegeki Araali, “Kayhura Defends Police Militarization,” New Vision, March 10, 2014, p. 10, <www.newvision.co.ug/new_vision/news/1310003/kayihura-defends-police-militarization>; Andrew Bagala, “UN Probes Uganda over North Korea Police Deals,” Daily Monitor, April 12, 2017, p. 4, <www.monitor.co.ug/News/National/UN-probes-Uganda-over-North-Korea-police-deal/688334-2275882-deomicz/index.html>.
24 S/2014/147, pp. 36–38.
25 State House of Uganda, “North Korea’s Kim Yong Num for Working Visit to Uganda,” press release, October 19, 2014, <www.mediacentre.go.ug/press-release/north-koreas-kim-yong-nam-working-visit-uganda>.
26 United Nations, “Africa at the UN General Assembly H.E. Mr. Sam Kahanba Kutesa,” Africa Renewal, <www.un.org/africarenewal/africaga/he-mr-sam-kahamba-kutesa>.
27 State House of Uganda, “President Museveni Hails Uganda–North Korea Good Relations,” press release, October 30, 2014, <www.statehouse.go.ug/media/news/2014/10/30/president-museveni-hails-uganda-north-korea-good-relations>; Uganda Media Center, Ministry of ICT and National Guidance, Republic of Uganda, “President Hails Uganda–North Korea good Relations,” press release, October 30, 2014; <http://mediacentre.go.ug/press-release/president-hails-uganda-north-korea-good-relations>. The original posts by State House and the Uganda Media Center have since been deleted, but the press release text can be found in “Museveni Hails Uganda–North Korea Ties,” New Vision, October 31, 2014, <www.newvision.co.ug/new_vision/news/1313711/museveni-hails-uganda-north-korea-ties>.
28 “Museveni Hails Uganda–North Korea Ties.”
29 Ministry of Internal Communication, Technology and National Guidance, “Uganda and DPR Korea Sign Agreement on Cooperation,” press release, Uganda Media Center, October 31, 2014, <www.mediacentre.go.ug/press-release/uganda-and-dpr-korea-sign-agreement-cooperation>.
The original posts by the media center of Uganda have been deleted, but the press-release text can be found in “Uganda, N. Korea Ink Cooperation Deal,” World Bulletin, November 1, 2014, <www.worldbulletin.net/economy/uganda-n-korea-ink-cooperation-deal-h147511.html>.
30 The embassy of Uganda in China covers its mission to North Korea.
31 Ministry of Foreign Affairs, “Adoption of the Resolution on the Situation of Human Rights in DPRK at the Plenary Meeting of the 69th Session of the UN General Assembly,” press release, December 19, 2014, <www.mofa.go.jp/mofaj/press/release/press4_001595.html>; UN Human Rights Office for the High Commissioner, “North Korea: UN Commission Documents Wide-Ranging and Ongoing Crimes against Humanity, Urges Referral to ICC,” February 18, 2014, <www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=14255&LangID=E>.
32 UN General Assembly, A/RES/69/188, “Situation of Human Rights in the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea,” <www.securitycouncilreport.org/atf/cf/%7B65BFCF9B-6D27-4E9C-8CD3-CF6E4FF96FF9%7D/a_res_69_188.pdf>; UN General Assembly, A/69/PV.73, “Official Record, 73rd Plenary Meeting Thursday, 18 December 2014, 10 a.m. New York,” December 18, 2014, pp. 22–23, <www.undocs.org/en/A/69/PV.73>.
33 S/2016/157, pp. 42–43.
34 Ibid.; Among, “Uganda, Tanzania in Trouble with UN over ‘Arms Deal’ with North Korea.”
35 Wilson Center, “Park Chung-hee 1917–1979,” Digital Archive International History Declassified,<https://digitalarchive.wilsoncenter.org/search-results/1/%7b%22subject%22:%221448%22%7d>.
36 Yonhap News Agency, “Full Text of Park’s Inaugural Speech,” February 25, 2013, <http://english.yonhapnews.co.kr/national/2013/02/25/95/0301000000AEN20130225001500315F.HTML>.
37 Park also sent South Korean Foreign Minister Yun Byung-se to Cuba from June 5 to 6, 2016, for the first time in South Korean history, as an attempt to establish diplomatic relations with Cuba.
38 Address by H.E. Park Geun-hye President of the Republic of Korea at the African Union, “Mutually Beneficial Partners for a New Future of Africa,” African Union, Addis Ababa, May 27, 2016, <https://au.int/en/speeches/20160527-0>.
39 Uganda Media Center, Ministry of ICT and National Guidance, Republic of Uganda, “Memorandum of Understanding on Cooperation and Policy Consultation between the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Uganda and the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Korea,” May 29, 2016, <www.mediacentre.go.ug/sites/default/files/rescrc/Final_Foreign%20Ministry_0526.pdf>.
40 Uganda Media Center, Ministry of ICT and National Guidance, Republic of Uganda, “Memorandum of Understanding between the Ministry of Health of the Republic of Uganda and the Ministry of Health and Welfare of the Republic of Korea on Cooperation in the Fields of Health Care and Medical Science,” May 29, 2016, <www.mediacentre.go.ug/sites/default/files/rescrc/Final_Health_0526.pdf>.
41 Uganda Media Center, Ministry of ICT and National Guidance, Republic of Uganda, “Memorandum of Understanding between the Ministry of Information and Communications Technology of the Republic of Uganda and the Ministry of Science, ICT and Future Planning of the Republic of Korea on Cooperation in the Field of Information and Communication Technology,” May 29, 2016, <www.mediacentre.go.ug/sites/default/files/rescrc/Korea-Uganda%20ICT%20MOU.pdf>.
42 Uganda Media Center, Ministry of ICT and National Guidance, Republic of Uganda, “Memorandum of Understanding between the Ministry of Energy and Mineral Development of the Republic of Uganda and the Ministry of Trade, Industry, and Energy of the Republic of Korea Concerning Cooperation in the Field of Energy, Industry and Plant Construction,” May 29, 2016, <www.mediacentre.go.ug/sites/default/files/rescrc/Final_Plant%20Construction_0526.pdf>.
43 Uganda Media Center, Ministry of ICT and National Guidance, Republic of Uganda, “Memorandum of Understanding between the Ministry of Education, Science, Technology and Sports of the Republic of Uganda and the Ministry of Science, ICT and Future Planning of the Republic of Korea on Cooperation in the Fields of Science and Technology,” May 29, 2016, <www.mediacentre.go.ug/sites/default/files/rescrc/Final_Sience%20and%20Technology_0526.pdf>.
44 Uganda Media Center, Ministry of ICT and National Guidance, Republic of Uganda, “Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) in the Matter of Agricultural Co-operation between the Ministry of Finance, Planning and Economic Development of the Republic of Uganda and the Export–Import Bank of Korea,” May 29, 2016, <www.mediacentre.go.ug/sites/default/files/rescrc/Final_Rural%20Development_Exim%20Bank_0526.pdf>.
45 Uganda Media Center, Ministry of ICT and National Guidance, Republic of Uganda, “Memorandum of Understanding between the Ministry of Defence of the Republic of Uganda and the Ministry of National Defense of the Republic of Korea,” May 29, 2016, <www.mediacentre.go.ug/sites/default/files/rescrc/Final_Defence_0526.pdf>.
46 Uganda Media Center, Ministry of ICT and National Guidance, Republic of Uganda, “Memorandum of Understanding between the Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Rural Affairs of the Republic of Korea and the Ministry of Agriculture, Animal Industry and Fisheries of the Republic of Uganda on Cooperation in the Field of Agriculture,” May 29, 2016, <www.mediacentre.go.ug/sites/default/files/rescrc/Final_Agriculture_0526.pdf>.
47 State House of Uganda, “Uganda, Korea Sign MoUs,” press release, May 29, 2016, <www.statehouse.go.ug/media/news/2016/05/29/uganda-korea-sign-mous>; State House of Uganda, “South Korea President Calls for Economic Partnership with Uganda,” press release, May 30, 2016, <www.statehouse.go.ug/media/news/2016/05/30/south-korea-president-calls-economic-partnership-uganda>.
48 State House of Uganda, “Uganda, Korea Signs MoUs.”
49 Republic of Korea, “The President of Republic of Korea, Korea Pledges to Walk Together with Uganda,” New Vision, May 27, 2016, <www.newvision.co.ug/new_vision/news/1425520/korea-pledges-walk-uganda>.
50 Chang Iou-chung, “Korea, Uganda Discuss Military Cooperation,” Korea.net, June 20, 2016, <www.korea.net/NewsFocus/policies/view?articleId=137734>.
51 UPF, “China to Train Uganda Police in Criminal Investigation,” December 20, 2017, <www.upf.go.ug/china-train-uganda-police-criminal-investigations/>.
52 “UPDF Moves to Strengthen Its Military Ties with China,” Softpower News, August 1, 2018, <www.softpower.ug/updf-moves-to-strengthen-military-ties-with-china/>.
53 Embassy of Republic of Korea in Uganda, “Media Focuses on Ugandan Decision to Cut NK Ties,” May 30, 2016, <http://uga.mofa.go.kr/english/af/uga/bilateral/news/index.jsp>.
54 Ministry of Foreign Affairs, press release, May 30, 2016, <www.mofa.go.ug/data/dnews/270/PRESS%20RELEASE.html?option=dnews&id=270>; Ministry of Foreign Affairs, “Republic of Uganda, Minister Oryem Okellp Re-assures North Korea on Diplomatic Relations” Facebook, July 1, 2016, <www.mofa.go.ug/data/dnews/291/Minister%20Oryem%20Okello%20Re-Assures%20North%20Korea%20on%20Diplomatic%20Relations.html>.
55 State House of Uganda, “Address by Yoweri Kaguda Museveni at the 72nd Session of the United Nations General Assembly,” press release, September 20, 2017, <www.statehouse.go.ug/media/speeches/2017/09/20/address-he-yoweri-kaguta-museveni-president-72nd-session-un-general-assemb>.
56 UNSC, S/2017/150, “Report of the Panel of Experts Established Pursuant to Resolution 1874 (2009),” February 27, 2017, Section 3, p. 46.
57 UNSC, S/2016/157, “Report of the Panel of Experts Established Pursuant to Resolution 1874 (2009),” February 24, 2016, Section C, pp. 42–43.
58 UNSC, “The List Established and Maintained Pursuant to Security Council Res. 1718 (2006),” p. 16, <https://scsanctions.un.org/fop/fop?xml=htdocs/resources/xml/en/consolidated.xml&xslt=htdocs/resources/xsl/en/dprk.xsl>.
59 UNSC, S/2017/150, “Annex 12-8: Uganda DPRK Embassy Offering South Sudan Military Cooperate,” p. 198.
60 Risdel Kasasira, “Uganda Expels North Korean Arms Dealers,” Daily Monitor, October 18, 2018, <www.monitor.co.ug/News/National/Uganda-expels-North-Korean-arms-dealers--/688334-4147586-1slr9z/index.html>.
61 UNSC, S/2018/171, “Report of the Panel of Experts Established Pursuant to Resolution 1874 (2009),” March 5, 2018, pp. 54–55.
62 Ibid., p. 43.
63 Joe Parkinson, “Never Take Their Photos: Tracking the Commandos. North Korea’s Secret Export,” Wall Street Journal, December 9, 2018, <www.wsj.com/articles/secret-workforce-funds-north-koreaand-defies-sanctions-1544379764>.
64 Mary Crane, “Uganda’s Presidential Elections,” Council on Foreign Relations, Febuary 21, 2006, <www.cfr.org/backgrounder/ugandas-presidential-elections>.
65 Uganda Media Center, Ministry of ICT and National Guidance, “Memorandum of Understanding between the Ministry of Defence of the Republic of Uganda and the Ministry of National Defense of the Republic of Korea;” UPF, “Joint Communiqué.”
66 State House of Uganda, “State of the Nation Address 2013,” June 6, 2013, <www.statehouse.go.ug/media/speeches/2013/06/07/state-nation-address-2013>; State House of Uganda, “State of the Nation Address, 2017,” June 14, 2017, <www.statehouse.go.ug/media/speeches/2017/06/14/state-nation-address-2017>.