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ABSTRACT
The making of the Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons (TPNW) has put Austria and its involvement in nuclear disarmament in the spotlight. This study highlights several factors that led Austria to become a prominent voice in nuclear-disarmament debates. First, its involvement dovetails with the emphasis on humanitarian disarmament it has promoted since the 1990s. Second, a strong antinuclear identity pervades Austrian society. This “nuclear allergy” combines antimilitarism inherited from the Cold War and, more broadly, an aversion to nuclear power, including for energy purposes. These two considerations form the background to the increased activism of the Austrian Foreign Ministry on nuclear disarmament in international fora. But, equally, Austria’s crusade for the TPNW can be attributed to the engagement of a small team of diplomats implementing personal as well as national preferences in favor of disarmament.
Notes
1 Eduard Jordaan, “The Concept of a Middle Power in International Relations: Distinguishing between Emerging and Traditional Middle Powers,” Politikon, Vol. 30, No. 1 (2003), pp. 165–81; see also Emmanuelle Maître, “Disarmament Diplomacy: Motivations and Objectives of the Main Actors in Nuclear Disarmament,” Recherches et Documents, n°03/2019, Fondation pour la Recherche Stratégique, March 2019, <www.frstrategie.org/en/publications/recherches-et-documents/disarmament-diplomacy-motivations-and-objectives-main-actors-nuclear-disarmament-2019>.
2 For a comprehensive examination of the humanitarian initiative campaign that led to the negotiation and adoption of the TPNW, see Rebecca Davis Gibbons, “The Humanitarian Turn in Nuclear Disarmament and the Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons,” Nonproliferation Review, Vol. 25, Nos. 1–2 (2018), pp. 11–36.
3 Bundesministerium für europäïsche und internationale Angelegenheiten, Federal Chancellery of the Republic of Austria, “Austrian Security Strategy: Security in a New Decade—Shaping Security,” July 2013, <www.bmeia.gv.at/fileadmin/user_upload/Zentrale/Aussenpolitik/Austrian_Security_Strategy.pdf>.
4 Such studies exist for other countries; for instance: South Africa (Jo-Ansie van Wyk, “South Africa's Post-apartheid Nuclear Diplomacy: Practice and Principles,” Insight on Africa, Vol. 7, No. 2 [2015], pp. 108–19), Sweden (Benjamin Hautecouverture, “Non-prolifération et désarmement: Le désarmement nucléaire et les politiques de sécurité en Suède (1946–1975),” CESIM Historical Note, June 2007), or New Zealand and Canada (Lyndon Burford, “National Identity and Nuclear Disarmament Advocacy by Canada and New Zealand,” PhD thesis, University of Auckland, 2016). General work on disarmament has not included Austria (Marianne Hanson, “The Advocacy States,” Nonproliferation Review, Vol. 17, No. 1 [2010], pp. 71–93; Harald Müller and Carmen Wunderlich, eds., Norm Dynamics in Multilateral Arms Control, Interests, Conflicts and Justice (Athens, GA: University of Georgia Press, 2013]; Tanya Ogilvie-White and David Santoro, eds., Slaying the Nuclear Dragon: Disarmament Dynamics in the Twenty-First Century, Macon: University of Georgia Press, 2012[; Maria Rost Rublee, Nonproliferation Norms: Why States Choose Nuclear Restraint [Athens, GA: University of Georgia Press, 2009]). Literature on Austria has so far been much broader, dealing with foreign policy in general (see for instance Anton Pelinka, Gunter Bischof, and Michael Gehler, eds., Austrian Foreign Policy in Historical Context, Contemporary Austrian Studies [London: Routledge, 2017]).
5 Andrew F. Cooper, Niche Diplomacy: Middle Powers after the Cold War (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 1997), p. 4.
6 See for instance: Morton H. Halperin and Priscilla Clapp, Bureaucratic Politics and Foreign Policy (Washington, DC: Brookings, 2006); Robert J. Art, “Bureaucratic Politics and American Foreign Policy: A Critique,” Policy Sciences, Vol. 4, No. 4 (1973), pp. 467–90 ; Mikael Blomdahl, “Bureaucratic Roles and Positions: Explaining the United States Libya Decision,” Diplomacy & Statecraft, Vol. 27, No. 1 (2016), pp. 142–61; Dan Caldwell, “Bureaucratic Foreign Policy-Making,” American Behavioral Scientist, Vol. 21, No. 1 (1977), pp. 87–110; Eben Christensen and Steven Redd, “Bureaucrats versus the Ballot Box in Foreign Policy Decision-Making,” Journal of Conflict Resolution, Vol. 48, No. 1 (2004), pp. 69–90; Daniel Brezner, “Ideas, Bureaucratic Politics and the Crafting of Foreign Policy,” American Journal of Political Science, Vol. 44, No. 4 (2000), pp. 733–49.
7 Baldur Thorhallsson and Sverrir Steinsson, “Small State Foreign Policy,” Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Politics, May 2017, <http://uni.hi.is/baldurt/files/2018/09/Small-State-Foreign-Policy-5404.pdf>.
8 Manuel Lafont Rapnouil, Tara Varma, and Nick Witney, “Eyes Tight Shut: European Attitudes Towards Nuclear Deterrence,” European Council on Foreign Relations, December 2018, <www.ecfr.eu/specials/scorecard/eyes_tight_shut_european_attitudes_towards_nuclear_deterrence>; Sebastian Brixey-Williams, “Reporting on Nuclear Disarmament, Success and Failure in 25 Years of Disarmament Diplomacy,” British-American Security Information Council, March 2019, <www.basicint.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/Brixey-Williams-Reporting-on-Nuclear-Disarmament-2019-%E2%80%93-WEB.pdf>; Tiphaine de Champchesnel, “Vers l’interdiction des Armes Nucléaires? Autour de l’attribution du Prix Nobel de la Paix à l’ONG antinucléaire ICAN” [Toward the interdiction of nuclear weapons: about the award of the Nobel Peace Price to the antinuclear NGO ICAN], Note de Recherche n°49, Institut de Recherche Stratégique de l’Ecole Militaire, December 14, 2017, <www.irsem.fr/data/files/irsem/documents/document/file/2445/NR_IRSEM_n49_2017.pdf>.
9 International Campaign to Ban Landmines, “Landmine Monitor Report 1999: Toward a Mine-free World, Landmine Monitor,” 1999, <https://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/Mine%20Ban%20Report%201999.pdf>.
10 Statement by Foreign Minister Wolfgang Schüssel, Ottawa, Canada, 3 December 1999, in Landmine Monitor Report 1999: Toward a Mine-Free World, Landmine Monitor, USA, 1999, p. 527.
11 “Bundesgesetz über das Verbot von Streumunition” [Federal Act on the Prohibition of Cluster Munitions], GP XXIII RV 232 AB 350 S. 42. BR: AB 7873 S.751, January 7, 2008, <www.ris.bka.gv.at/GeltendeFassung.wxe?Abfrage=Bundesnormen&Gesetzesnummer=20005665>.
12 Cluster Munitions Monitor 2018, Monitoring and Research Committee / ICBL-CMC Governance Board, 2018, <www.the-monitor.org/en-gb/reports/2018/cluster-munition-monitor-2018.aspx>.
13 Interview with senior Austrian officials from the Ministry of Defense, Vienna, February 18, 2019.
14 Gibbons, “The Humanitarian Turn in Nuclear Disarmament and the Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons.”
15 Review of the operation of the Treaty, as provided for in its article VIII (3), taking into account the decisions and the resolution adopted by the 1995 Review and Extension Conference and the Final Document of the 2000 Review Conference Conclusions and recommendations for follow-on actions, NPT/CONF.2010/50 (Vol. I), 2010 Review Conference of the Parties to the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons Final Document, May 28, 2010, <www.reachingcriticalwill.org/images/documents/Disarmament-fora/npt/revcon2010/FinalDocument.pdf>.
16 Gibbons, “The Humanitarian Turn in Nuclear Disarmament and the Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons.”
17 Address by Federal Councillor Micheline Calmy-Rey, Head of the Federal Department of Foreign Affairs, on the occasion of the 19th IPPNW World Congress, “The Future of Nuclear Disarmament: A Swiss Perspective,” Basel, August, 27, 2010, <www.eda.admin.ch/dam/eda/en/documents/aussenpolitik/sicherheitspolitik/the-future-of-nuclear-disarmament-basel2010_en.pdf>.
18 William Potter, “Disarmament Diplomacy and the Nuclear Ban Treaty,” Survival, Vol. 59, No. 4 (2017), pp. 75–108.
19 Alexander Kmentt, “The Development of the International Initiative on the Humanitarian Impact of Nuclear Weapons and Its Effect on the Nuclear Weapons Debate,” International Review of the Red Cross, Vol. 97, No. 899 (2015), pp. 681–709.
20 The Austrian Pledge later known as Humanitarian Pledge, <www.bmeia.gv.at/fileadmin/user_upload/Zentrale/Aussenpolitik/Abruestung/HINW14/HINW14_Austrian_Pledge.pdf>.
21 Beatrice Fihn, “All eyes on the humanitarin initiative,” European Leadership Network, April 22, 2015, <www.europeanleadershipnetwork.org/commentary/all-eyes-on-the-humanitarian-initiative>.
22 “The Vienna Conference on the Humanitarian Impact of Nuclear Weapons (8–9 December 2014) and the Austrian Pledge: Input for the NPT 2015 Review Conference,” Working Paper submitted by Austria, NPT/CONF.2015/WP.29, April 21, 2015, <www.reachingcriticalwill.org/images/documents/Disarmament-fora/npt/revcon2015/documents/WP29.pdf>; Working Paper on the Humanitarian Impact of Nuclear Weapons submitted by Austria, Chile, Costa Rica, Holy See, Indonesia, Ireland, Malaysia, Mexico, New Zealand, Philippines, Sweden and Switzerland, NPT/CONF.2015/WP.30, April 22, 2015, <www.reachingcriticalwill.org/images/documents/Disarmament-fora/npt/revcon2015/documents/WP30.pdf>.
23 Potter, “Disarmament Diplomacy and the Nuclear Ban Treaty.”
24 “Revised Draft Report of the Open-Ended Working Group Taking Forward Multilateral Nuclear Disarmament Negotiation,” OEWG, August 19, 2016, <www.reachingcriticalwill.org/images/documents/Disarmament-fora/OEWG/2016/Documents/A-AC.286-CRP.3.pdf>.
25 “Taking forward multilateral nuclear disarmament negotiations,” A/RES/71/258, Resolution adopted by the General Assembly on 23 December 2016 [on the report of the First Committee (A/71/450)], <https://undocs.org/en/A/RES/71/258>; William Potter, “Disarmament Diplomacy and the Nuclear Ban Treaty.”
26 Interview with senior Austrian officials from the MFA, Vienna, February 18, 2019.
27 Daan Kayser and Alice Beck, “European Positions on Lethal Autonomous Weapon Systems,” Update 2018, Pax for Peace Netherlands, Utrecht, 2018 <www.paxforpeace.nl/media/files/pax-rapport-crunch-time.pdf>.
28 MFA, “Explosivwaffen in besiedelten Gebieten” [Explosive weapons in populated areas], <www.bmeia.gv.at/europa-aussenpolitik/abruestung/konventionelle-waffen/explosivwaffen-in-besiedelten-gebieten/>; Joint Statement on Explosive Weapons in Populated Areas, UNGA First Committee, New York, October 25, 2018, <www.dfa.ie/media/dfa/ourrolepolicies/peaceandsecurity/Joint-Statement-on-EWIPA-delivered-by-Amb-Byrne-Nason.pdf>. The joint statement promoted the Secretary-General’s Disarmament Agenda: “The Secretary-General will support the efforts of Member States to develop a political declaration, as well as appropriate limitations, common standards and operational policies in conformity with international humanitarian law relating to the use of explosive weapons in populated areas.” See UN Office for Disarmament Affairs, “Securing Our Common Future: An Agenda for Disarmament,” New York, 2018, <https://s3.amazonaws.com/unoda-web/wp-content/uploads/2018/06/sg-disarmament-agenda-pubs-page.pdf#view=Fit>.
29 UN Office for Disarmament Affairs, “Securing Our Common Future.”
30 Ignaz Seidl-Hohenveldern, “La neutralité autrichienne et les relations de l’Autriche avec les Communautés européennes,” Annuaire français de droit international, Vol. 9 (1963), pp. 826–37.
31 Andrew E. Harrod, “Hidden Hands and Cross-Purposes: Austria and the Irreconcilable Conflict between Neutrality and Market Laws,” Austrian History Yearbook, Vol. 43 (2012), pp. 165–88.
32 Article 13 of the State Treaty, Prohibition of Special Weapons: “1. Austria shall not possess, construct or experiment with—a) Any atomic weapon, b) any other major weapon adaptable now or in the future to mass destruction and defined as such by the appropriate organ of the United Nations, c) any self-propelled or guided missile or torpedoes, or apparatus connected with their discharge or control, d) sea mines, e) torpedoes capable of being manned, f) submarines or other submersible craft, g) motor torpedo boats, h) specialized types of assault craft, i) guns with a range of more than 30 kilometers, j) asphyxiating, vesicant or poisonous materials or biological substances in quantities greater than, or of types other than, are required for legitimate civil purposes, or any apparatus designed to produce, project or spread such materials or substances for war purposes.” See: State Treaty for the Re-establishment of an Independent and Democratic Austria, May 15, 1955, Part II, Article 13 <https://treaties.un.org/doc/Publication/UNTS/Volume%20217/v217.pdf>.
33 Constitutional Law on Austria's Neutrality, October 26, 1955.
34 Neil Tweedie, “Vienna Was Top of Soviet Nuclear Targets List,” The Telegraph, December 1, 2001, <www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/austria/1364037/Vienna-was-top-of-Soviet-nuclear-targets-list.html>.
35 William Burr, “U.S. Cold War Nuclear Target Lists Declassified for First Time,” National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book No. 538, Nuclear Vault, National Security Archive, George Washington University, December 22, 2015, <https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/nukevault/ebb538-Cold-War-Nuclear-Target-List-Declassified-First-Ever/>.
36 Lothar Rühl, “Österreichische Sicherheitslage in der Neutralität während des Ost-West-Konflikts” [Austrian security situation in neutrality during the East–West conflict], in Erich Reiter and Ernst König, eds., Österreichs Neutralität und die Operationsplanungen des Warschauer Paktes (Vienna: Landesverteidigungsakademie und Büro für Sicherheitspolitik, 1999), pp. 17–23.
37 “Zivilschutz: Sind wir leichtsinnig?” [Civil defense: are we careless?], in Zivilschutz. Informationsdienst des ÖZSV, Graz, 3, January 1967, p. 9.
38 Dario Summer, “Angst im Frontstaat Österreich—Der Zivilschutz während des Kalten Krieges” [Civil defense during the Cold War], Diplomarbeit, Universität Wien, 2013, p. 28.
39 Werner Fasslabend, “Austria’s Options for the Future,” Symposion, Perspektiven einer neuen europaïschen Sicherheitsordnung die Mitverantwortung Österreich, Schriftenreihe der Landesverteidigungsakademie, Institut für strategische Forschung, n°3/98, October 21–22, 1997; Wolfgang Schüssel, “NATO-Beitritt nicht ausschließen,” Austria Press Agency, Original Text Service, November 3, 2001, <www.ots.at/presseaussendung/OTS_20011103_OTS0009/profil-schuessel-nato-beitritt-nicht-ausschliessen>.
40 NATO, “Relations with Austria,” November 27, 2018, <www.nato.int/cps/en/natohq/topics_48901.htm>.
41 The conservative party was in favor, the socialist party against. Irish Times, “Issue of Austria's Neutrality Again to the forefront,” August 12, 1996, <www.irishtimes.com/news/issue-of-austria-s-neutrality-again-to-the-forefront-1.76054>.
42 Eric Frey, “Austria to Rule out Nato Entry,” Financial Times, March 16, 1998, p. 3.
43 Ernst Bruckmüller, Nation Österreich. Kulturelles Bewusstsein und gesellschaftlich-politische Prozesse [The Austrian nation. Cultural awareness and sociopolitical mechanisms] (Vienna: Böhlau, 1995), p. 125.
44 Neutrality was named as a source of pride for Austria by 35 percent of respondents in 2007, 25 percent in 1975. See News.at, “Darauf sind Österreicher stolz: Neutralität, Lebensart und gute Küche immer wichtiger” [What Austrians are proud of: neutrality, lifestyle, and good cuisine], April 24, 2007, <www.news.at/a/darauf-oesterreicher-neutralitaet-lebensart-kueche-171236>.
45 APA-OTS, “Große Mehrheit der Österreicher für Neutralität” [Large majority of Austrians in favor of neutrality], August 24, 2001, <www.ots.at/presseaussendung/OTS_20020825_OTS0024/grosse-mehrheit-der-oesterreicher-fuer-neutralitaet>.
46 Der Standard, “Mehrheit glaubt nicht an Fortbestand der Neutralität” [Majority does not believe in the continuance of neutrality], February 20, 2011, <https://apps.derstandard.at/privacywall/story/1297818475209/umfrage-mehrheit-glaubt-nicht-an-fortbestand-der-neutralitaet>.
47 APA-OTS, “ATV-Frage der Woche: Wie wichtig ist den Österreichern die Neutralität im 21. Jahrhundert?” [How important is Austrian neutrality in the 21st century?], October 28, 2018, <www.ots.at/presseaussendung/OTS_20181025_OTS0144/atv-frage-der-woche-wie-wichtig-ist-den-oesterreichern-die-neutralitaet-im-21-jahrhundert>.
48 Carmen Gebhard, “Is Small Still Beautiful? The Case of Austria,” Swiss Political Science Review, Vol. 19, No. 3 (2013), pp. 279–97.
49 Ibid.
50 Interview with senior Austrian officials from the Ministry of Defense, Vienna, February 18, 2019.
51 Militärstrategisches Konzept 2017, Österreichisches Bundesheer, <www.bundesheer.at/pdf_pool/publikationen/msk2017.pdf>.
52 Jussi Rosendahl, “Nordic States Step up Defense Cooperation because of Russia Worries,” Reuters, November 6, 2017, <www.reuters.com/article/us-nordic-defence/nordic-states-step-up-defense-cooperation-because-of-russia-worries-idUSKBN1D629T>.
53 Kurier.at, “Umfrage: Russland in Österreich beliebter als USA” [Survey: Russia more appreciated than the United States in Austria], November 28, 2018, <https://kurier.at/politik/ausland/umfrage-russland-in-oesterreich-beliebter-als-usa/400338118>.
54 For instance, after the March 2018 poisoning of Sergei and Yulia Skripal, Austria refused to join the European Union in expelling Russian diplomats, asserting that “we want to keep the channels of communication open to Russia, [since] Austria is a neutral country and sees itself as a bridge builder between East and West.” Die Presse, “Kurz und Kneissl: Österreich weist keine Diplomaten aus” [Austria does not expel any diplomat], March 26, 2018, <www.diepresse.com/5395747/kurz-und-kneissl-osterreich-weist-keine-diplomaten-aus>. See also Boris Grondahl and Radoslav Tomek, “Austria’s Skipping Russian Expulsions a ‘Bad Joke’ to Allies,” Bloomberg, March 27, 2018, <www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2018-03-27/austria-draws-scorn-for-sitting-out-russian-diplomat-expulsions>.
55 Gustav Gressel, “Austria: Russia’s Trojan Horse?” European Council on Foreign Relations, December 21, 2017, <www.ecfr.eu/article/commentary_austria_russias_trojan_horse>.
56 These values have especially included support for the European Union, the transatlantic bond, free trade and globalization, the question of migration, liberalism, and secularism. See Gustav Gressel, “Fellow Travellers: Russia, Anti-Westernism, and Europe’s Political Parties,” European Council on Foreign Relations, July 14, 2017, <www.ecfr.eu/publications/summary/fellow_travellers_russia_anti_westernism_and_europes_political_parties_7213>.
57 MFA, Stockholm Ministerial Meeting on Nuclear Disarmament and the Non-Proliferation Treaty, ministerial declaration, Stockholm, June 11, 2019. See also Andrea Berger, “Swiss and Swedish Inquiries on the Nuclear Ban Treaty,” Arms Control Wonk, January 22, 2019, <www.armscontrolwonk.com/archive/1206723/swiss-and-swedish-inquiries-on-the-nuclear-ban-treaty/>.
58 Peter Weish, “The Nuclear Debate in Austria,” International Nuclear Information System, April 1977, <https://inis.iaea.org/collection/NCLCollectionStore/_Public/45/111/45111994.pdf>.
59 Ibid.
60 Florian Bayer, “Die Ablehnung der Kernenergie in Österreich: Ein Anti-Atom-Konsens als Errungenschaft einer sozialen Bewegung?” [The abolition of atomic energy in Austria: an anti-nuclear consensus as the achievement of a social movement?], Momentum Quarterly, Vol. 3, No. 3 (2014), pp. 170–87.
61 Weish, “The Nuclear Debate in Austria.”
62 Bayer, “Die Ablehnung der Kernenergie in Österreich.”
63 Ibid.
64 Ibid.
65 Ibid.
66 Anton Pelinka and Sylvia Greiderer, “Austria: The Referendum as an Instrument of Internationalisation,” in Pier Vincenzo Uleri and Michael Gallagher, eds., The Referendum Experience in Europe (London: Macmillan Press, 1996), p. 23.
67 Bundesgesetz vom 15. Dezember 1978 über das Verbot der Nutzung der Kernspaltung für die Energieversorgung in Österreich [Federal law of December 15, 1978 prohibiting the use of fissile material for energy supply in Austria], BGBl 1978/676, <www.salzburg.gv.at/umweltnaturwasser_/PublishingImages/pic-1978a676.jpg>.
68 Bundesverfassungsgesetz für ein atomfreies Österreich [Constitutional law for a nuclear-free Austria], StF: BGBl. I Nr. 149/1999, <www.ris.bka.gv.at/GeltendeFassung.wxe?Abfrage=Bundesnormen&Gesetzesnummer=10008058>.
69 Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) and Nuclear Energy Agency (NEA), “Nuclear Legislation in OECD and NEA Countries: Austria, 2016,” <www.oecd-nea.org/law/legislation/austria.pdf>.
70 Strahlenschutzgesetz [Radiation Protection Law], BGBl. Nr. 227/1969, <www.ris.bka.gv.at/GeltendeFassung.wxe?Abfrage=Bundesnormen&Gesetzesnummer=10010335>.
71 The Strahlenschutzgesetz cited above as well as the Allgemeine Strahlenschutzverordnung, BGBl. II Nr. 22/2015 set some rules about licensing, intended to foster nuclear safety.
72 For example in the Sicherheitskontrollgesetz 2013, BGBl. I Nr. 42/2013, <www.ris.bka.gv.at/GeltendeFassung.wxe?Abfrage=Bundesnormen&Gesetzesnummer=20008274>.
73 Austria is a party to, among others, the Convention on the Physical Protection of Nuclear Material 1988, the Convention on Early Notification of a Nuclear Accident since 1988, the Convention on Assistance in the Case of a Nuclear Accident or Radiological Emergency 1989, the Convention on Nuclear Safety since 1997, and the Joint Convention on the Safety of Spent Fuel Management and on the Safety of Radioactive Waste Management since 2001, and has signed and ratified the Additional Protocol, which entered into force in 2004 (Source: OECD and NEA, “Nuclear Legislation in OECD and NEA Countries.”
74 Bayer, “Die Ablehnung der Kernenergie in Österreich.”
75 This group, mostly composed of former antinuclear activists, was in charge of providing the Austrian government with technical expertise and supporting its antinuclear policy. See Helmuth Böck, “Austria’s Anti-Nuclear Crusade,” presentation to Public Information Materials Exchange, Vienna, February 12–16, 2006, <www.euronuclear.org/events/pime/pime2006/presentations/Boeck.pdf>.
76 Ibid.
77 BBC, “Austrian Protesters Block Czech Border,” November 2, 2000, <http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/1003618.stm>.
78 Helmuth Böck and Dana Drábová, “Transboundary Risks: The Temelin Case,” in R. Avenhaus and G. Sjöstedt, eds., Negotiated Risks: International Talks on Hazardous Issues (Berlin: Springer, 2009), <https://inis.iaea.org/collection/NCLCollectionStore/_Public/41/109/41109418.pdf?r=1&r=1>.
79 World Nuclear News, “Austria Files Action against Hinkley Point Project,” July 6, 2015, <www.world-nuclear-news.org/NN-Austria-files-legal-action-against-Hinkley-Point-project-0607201502.html>. Prospect Law, “The European Court of Justice Rejects Austria’s Challenge to Hinkley Point C,” July 16, 2018, < https://prospectlaw.co.uk/the-european-court-of-justice-rejects-austrias-challenge-to-hinkley-point-c/>. World Nuclear News, “Austria Takes EC to Court over Paks Decision,” February 23, 2018, <www.world-nuclear-news.org/NP-Austria-takes-EC-to-court-over-Paks-decision-2302184.html>.
80 Interview with senior Austrian officials from the MFA, Paris, 10 July 2019.
81 Errichtung einer atomwaffenfreien Zone in Europa, Entschließungsantrag abgelehnt [Establishment of a nuclear weapons free zone in Europe, motion of a resolution rejected], National Rat, May 13, 1998, <www.parlament.gv.at/PAKT/VHG/XX/A/A_00544/fname_124878.pdf>.
82 Nichtstationierung von Atomwaffen in Mittel- und Osteuropa (777/A(E)) [No Deployment of Nuclear Weapons in Central and Eastern Europe], National Rat, February 10, 1999, <www.parlament.gv.at/PAKT/VHG/XX/A/A_00777/fname_125110.pdf>.
83 “Einsatz für eine Welt ohne Atomwaffen,” Entschließungsantrag angenommen [“Input for a world without nuclear weapons,” motion of a resolution accepted], Nationalrat, March 24, 2010, <www.parlament.gv.at/PAKT/VHG/XXIV/A/A_00979/fname_180260.pdf>.
84 Entschließung betreffend der Bemühungen der österreichischen Bundesregierung im Bereich der Abrüstung und Nichtverbreitung von Nuklearwaffen [Resolution on the efforts of the Austrian government regarding disarmament and nonproliferation of nuclear weapons], 253 d.B., July 10, 2014, <www.parlament.gv.at/PAKT/VHG/XXV/I/I_00253/fname_356682.pdf>.
85 Anti-Atompolitik: Nationalrat stärkt Regierung den Rücken, Parlamentskorrespondenz Nr. 839 vom 08.07.2016 [Parliament bolstering up the government, parliament correspondence no. 839, July 8, 2016], Nationalrat, July 8, 2016, <www.parlament.gv.at/PAKT/PR/JAHR_2016/PK0839/>.
86 Vertrag über das Verbot von Kernwaffen (13/BNR), Beschluss im Bundesrat [Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons, resolution in Bundesrat], April 5, 2018, <www.parlament.gv.at/PAKT/VHG/BR/I-BR/I-BR_09928/index.shtml>.
87 Burford, , “National Identity and Nuclear Disarmament Advocacy by Canada and New Zealand.”
88 Klaus Renoldner, “Austria and Its Efforts towards the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons,” Medicine, Conflict and Survival, Vol. 34, No. 4 (2018), pp. 258–62.
89 ICAN Austria is composed of three permanent members; they have staged a few events in Vienna in recent years but are not particularly visible in the international campaign. See the social networks of the movement, and especially <www.icanaustria.at/> and <https://twitter.com/@icanaustria>.
90 See Parliamentarians for Nuclear Non-proliferation and Disarmament, “PNND Members by Country,” <http://pnnd.org/people/members>. By comparison, European countries with a comparable number of parliamentarians have more members, such as Norway with 19, Belgium with 16, and Sweden with 15.
91 Rapnouil et al., Eyes Tight Shut.
92 Interview with senior Austrian officials from the MFA, Vienna, July 19, 2018.
93 Ibid.
94 Interview with senior Austrian officials from the MFA, Geneva, September 19, 2018 and Vienna, July 19, 2018.
95 Interview with senior Austrian MFA officials, Paris, July 10, 2019.
96 Interview with senior Austrian MFA officials, Brussels, September 17, 2018.
97 Interview with senior Austrian MFA officials, Paris, July 10, 2019. See also Renoldner, “Austria and Its Efforts towards the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons.”
98 All three diplomats served in Geneva: Alexander Marschik as first secretary from 1996 to 1997 (he later worked on the nuclear file of the Austrian Mission to the United Nations in New York), Alexander Kmentt as deputy permanent representative from 2000 to 2004, and Thomas Hajnoczi as permanent representative from 2013 to 2017.
99 Renoldner, “Austria and Its Efforts towards the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons.”
100 MFA, “Linhart Says: ‘Austria and Nobel Peace Prize Winners, ICAN, Will Work Side by Side for a World Free of Nuclear Weapons,” press release, February 1, 2018, <www.bmeia.gv.at/en/the-ministry/press/announcements/2018/02/linhart-says-austria-and-nobel-peace-prize-winners-ican-will-work-side-by-side-for-a-world-free-of-nuclear-weapons/>.
101 Ibid.; Sebastian Kurz, “Gratulation an ICAN zum Friedensnobelpreis 2017 für den Einsatz zum Verbot von Atomwaffen,” press release, MFA, October 6, 2018, <www.bmeia.gv.at/das-ministerium/presse/aussendungen/2017/10/bundesminister-sebastian-kurz-gratulation-an-ican-zum-friedensnobelpreis-2017-fuer-den-einsatz-zum-verbot-von-atomwaffen/>; Alexander Kmentt, Twitter, October 6, 2017, 12:58, <https://twitter.com/alexanderkmentt/status/916528185164156928>; Beatrice Fihn, Twitter, October 8, 2017, 8:15, <https://twitter.com/BeaFihn/status/917000606232875009>; Christian Ultsch, “Der Friedensnobelpreis: eine Botschaft an Trump, Kim und die Nato” [The Nobel Peace Prize: a message to Trump, Kim and NATO], Die Presse, October 6, 2017, <www.diepresse.com/5298425/der-friedensnobelpreis-eine-botschaft-an-trump-kim-und-die-nato>.
102 Interview with senior Austrian officials from the MFA, Paris, July 11, 2019.
103 Potter, “Disarmament Diplomacy and the Nuclear Ban Treaty.”
104 Emmanuelle Maître, “ICAN: le nouveau visage du combat abolitionniste” [ICAN: the new face of the struggle for abolition], Bulletin de l’Observatoire de la dissuasion n°49, FRS, December 2017; Anfragebeantwortung, 377/AB XXV. GP, Eingelangt am 13.03.2014, <www.parlament.gv.at/PAKT/VHG/XXV/AB/AB_00377/fnameorig_342379.html>.
105 Most people interviewed shared this assessment; a few did not see any tangible difference in standing or did not believe that the policy had been driven by a wish to gain prestige.
106 Interview with senior Austrian officials from the MFA, Vienna, July 19, 2018. Interview with senior Austrian officials from the MFA, Brussels, September 17, 2018.
107 Ibid.
108 Arms Control Association, “2014 Arms Control Person of the Year Announced,” January 8, 2014, <www.armscontrol.org/pressroom/2015-01/2014-arms-control-person-year-announced>.
109 “Austrian Chancellor Sebastian Kurz visits Hiroshima peace park and A-bomb museum,” Japan Times, February 16, 2019, <www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2019/02/16/national/politics-diplomacy/austrian-chancellor-sebastian-kurz-visits-hiroshima-peace-park-bomb-museum/#.XfFWbpNKhTY>.
110 Interview with senior Austrian officials from the MFA, Paris, 10 July 2019.
111 Interview with diplomats from different EU member states, Paris, May 24, 2018.
112 Interview with senior Austrian officials from the MFA, Vienna, February 18, 2019.
113 Interview with diplomats from different EU member states, Paris, May 24, 2018.
114 NATO, “Relations with Austria,” last updated November 27, 2018, <www.nato.int/cps/en/natohq/topics_48901.htm>
115 Auslandseinsätze des Bundesheeres, Zahlen, Daten, Fakten, [Foreign Deployment of the Federal Armed Forces, Numbers, Dates and Facts] updated March 2019, <http://www.bundesheer.at/ausle/zahlen.shtml>.
116 Interview with diplomats from different EU member states, Paris, May 24, 2018.
117 Burford, “National Identity and Nuclear Disarmament Advocacy by Canada and New Zealand.”