Beyond crisis management: the lessons of US interventions in Indo–Pakistani nuclear crises

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Notes

1 Stephen P. Cohen, Shooting for a Century: The India–Pakistan Conundrum (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press, 2013).

2 See, e.g., P.R. Chari, Pervaiz Iqbal Cheema, and Stephen P. Cohen, Four Crises and a Peace Process: American Engagement in South Asia (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press, 2007); Polly Nayak and Michael Krepon, The Unfinished Crisis: US Crisis Management after the 2008 Mumbai Attacks (Washington, DC: Henry L. Stimson Center, 2012); S. Paul Kapur, Dangerous Deterrent: Nuclear Weapons Proliferation and Conflict in South Asia (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2007).

3 Timothy W. Crawford, Pivotal Deterrence: Third-Party Statecraft and the Pursuit of Peace (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2003), p. 5.

4 Ibid., p. 169.

5 See Mario Carranza, “Deterrence or Taboo? Explaining the Non-use of Nuclear Weapons during the Indo–Pakistani Post-tests Nuclear Crises,” Contemporary Security Policy, Vol. 39, No. 3 (2018), pp. 441–63.

6 See Walter C. Ladwig III, “A Cold Start for Hot Wars? The Indian Army’s New Limited War Doctrine,” International Security, Vol. 32, No. 3 (2007/08), p. 158.

7 See V.K. Sood and Pravin Sawhney, Operation Parakram: The War Unfinished (New Delhi: Sage, 2003), p. 80.

8 See Howard Schaffer, The Limits of Influence: America’s Role in Kashmir (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press, 2009).

9 As cited in Michael Krepon and Polly Nayak, US Crisis Management in South Asia’s Twin Peaks Crisis (Washington, DC: Stimson Center, 2006), p. 32.

10 See Nina Tannenwald, “How Strong Is the Nuclear Taboo Today?” Washington Quarterly, Vol. 41, No. 3 (2018), pp. 89–109.

11 T. Negeen Pegahi, “From Kargil to Pulwama: How Nuclear Crises Have Changed over 20 Years,” Washington Quarterly, Vol. 42, No. 2 (2019), p. 156.

12 The 2005 agreement between President George W. Bush and Indian Prime Minister Manmohan Singh lifting a three-decades-old moratorium on nuclear trade with India was approved by the US Congress in 2008.

13 See note 52, p. 280, quoting the author’s interview in 2017 with Vikram Sood, India’s Research and Analysis Wing chief during the 2001–02 standoff.

14 As we have seen, in September 2016 India carried out “surgical” airstrikes inside Pakistani-controlled Kashmir.

15 See Toby Dalton and Gaurav Kalwani, “Might India Start the Next South Asia Crisis?” War on the Rocks, November 1, 2019, <https://warontherocks.com/2019/11/might-india-start-the-next-south-asia-crisis/>.

16 See Nina Tannenwald, The Nuclear Taboo: The United States and the Non-Use of Nuclear Weapons since 1945 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007).