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Abstract
While much is known about the consequences of PSM, comparatively little is known about the causes of PSM. Furthermore, while PSM is believed to be influenced by parents, no study has obtained measures of PSM directly from parents. This study contributes to the literature by being the first to survey both children and their parents in a study of the antecedents of PSM. Nested regression models paring over 800 parents and children suggest that parental PSM-related values have a strong association with the PSM-related values of their children. This is the first study to show the intergenerational transfer of PSM and suggests that PSM may be largely socialized via the family.
Notes
1 However, it is important to note that the estimates are correlational; various factors could impact the PSM of both parents and children and thus confound the estimates.
2 Women were likely to have higher PSM than men, though Parola et al. (Citation2019) found that this was only for Anglo countries. As age, education, tenure, and employment grade increased, PSM generally increased; better relations between employees and management were also associated with higher PSM.
3 But see Greentree (Citation2011), Rose (Citation2013), Van Witteloostuijn, Esteve, and Boyne (Citation2017), Holt (Citation2019), Kim (Citation2020), Holt and Choi (Citation2020).
4 If a parent was not available, then a guardian was surveyed. All analysis was re-run sans guardians and the results were similar.
5 As an additional part of this validation, all of the elements of this proposed PSM-related measure were equated to a recognized index of PSM. A survey was commissioned that included the questions from the proposed measure as well as questions from Perry’s (Citation1996) reduced scale (Perry et al. Citation2008); the political knowledge questions were updated to those used by Delli Carpini and Ketter (Citation1993) to make them more contemporary. This survey collected over 200 responses and was conducted using Mechanical Turk.
As has been employed in past studies of measuring PSM, (Perry Citation1996; Vandenabeele Citation2008; Kim et al. Citation2013), confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was used to verify the results. In order to assess the model, several factors must be considered: model fit, convergent validity, and discriminant validity. To assess model fit, the model chi-square, root mean square error of approximation, comparative fit index, and standardized root mean square residual should be analyzed (Kline Citation2005; Kim et al. Citation2013). For convergent validity, the factor-loadings should be statistically significant (Anderson and Gering Citation1988; Vandenabeele Citation2008). Divergent validity can be determined by the heterotrait-monotrait ratio of the correlations (Henseler, Ringle, and Sarstedt Citation2015).
The results from the CFA demonstrated that a multi-factor model including the proposed measure of PSM met all of the criteria for a good fit of the data. Model fit scores met all of the requirements, and there was both convergent and discriminant validity. This provides additional support for the notion that the proposed measure of PSM does tap into the underlying concept of PSM.
6 See the Online Appendix for exact question wording.
7 While some scholars treat PSM as multidimensional, it has been shown to perform just as well as a unidimensional measure (Wright, Christensen, and Pandey Citation2013).
8 The questions used asked if the respondent was currently working for the government or the respondent had ever served in the military, respectively.
9 Church attendance is measured as 1 for those who attended at least once a week, 0 else. Religiosity is coded as 1 for those who believe that the bible is the inerrant word of God, 0 else.
10 It is important to clarify that these results suggest a correlational relationship. Multiple factors could shape a family’s PSM, i.e., affect the PSM of both parents and their children, thus confounding the estimates. Potential confounders may relate to neighborhood factors or events, friends or relatives’ behaviors, family travels or other forms of exposure to other cultures or countries. Reverse causality may also be present; that is, child PSM could affect parental PSM.
Additional information
Notes on contributors
Michael Bednarczuk
Michael Bednarczuk is an Instructor of Political Science at Grace College. Michael earned his PhD in political science at the University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee. His research focuses on public management and public policy.