https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9037-0333
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Abstract
In October 2016, a burning liquid was thrown over a bus driver in Brisbane, Australia. It was reported across the world that the 29-year-old bus driver was a Punjabi Indian and that his killing may have been a hate crime. A subsequent independent inquiry found that 50-year-old Anthony O’Donohue, who was charged with murder and other offences, had a long history of mental illness and had been discharged from treatment from a community mental health service four-and-a-half months earlier. In August 2018, the Queensland Mental Health Court found that, at the time of the alleged offences, Mr O’Donohue was of unsound mind and acquitted him of all charges. The case provides an opportunity to consider the decision making of a mental health service in the prelude to a major critical incident. The case also highlights the tension between the principles of patient autonomy and the ‘recovery model’ of mental illness on the one hand and the need to assertively manage persons who have no insight into their serious mental illness and are at risk of harming themselves or others.
Ethical standards
Declaration of conflicts of interest
The author has declared no potential conflicts of interest.
The views expressed are the author’s and are not representative of Queensland Health.
Ethical approval
This article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals.
Informed consent
No individual participated in any study in this article.
The author has never been Mr O’Donohue’s treating psychiatrist.
The facts of the case are described in detail in the Mullen Review, which is open source material, and in the published decision of the Mental Health Court: In the matter of Anthony O’Donohue [2018] QMHC 8 (no 185 of 2017) Mental Health Court 2018, delivered 10 August 2018.
Retrieved from https://archive.sclqld.org.au/qjudgment/2018/QMHC18-008.pdf
Notes
1 KM Craig, ‘Examining Hate-motivated Aggression: A Review of the Social Psychological Literature on Hate Crimes as a Distinct Form of Aggression’ (2002) 7(1) Aggression and Violent Behavior 85–101.
2 B Perry, In the Name of Hate (Routledge, New York 2001); see also G Mason, ‘Hate Crime and the Image of the Stranger’ (2005) 45 British Journal of Criminology 837–59; B Perry, ‘“We Are All Vulnerable”’: The In Terrorem Effects of Hate Crimes’ (2011) 18(1) International Review of Victimology 57–71; N Chakraborti and J Garland, ‘Reconceptualising Hate Crime Victimization Through the Lens of Vulnerability and “Difference”’ (2012) 16(4) Theoretical Criminology 499–514; C Funnell, ‘Racist Hate Crime and the Mortified Self: An Ethnographic Study of the Impact of Victimization’ (2015) 21(1) International Review of Victimology 71–83.
3 CJ Lyons, ‘Individual Perceptions and the Social Construction of Hate Crimes: A Factorial Survey’ (2008) 45 Social Science Journal 107–31; see also K Wong and K Christmann, ‘The Role of Victim Decision-making in the Reporting of Hate Crimes’ (2008) 7(2) Community Safety Journal 19–35; B Levin (ed), Hate Crimes: Understanding and Defining Hate Crime (Praeger, Westport 2009); P Iganski (ed), Hate Crimes: The Consequences of Hate Crime (Praeger, Westport 2009); N Chakraborti (ed), Hate crime: Concepts, Policy, Future Directions (Willan, Cullompton 2010); N Hall and others, (eds), The Routledge International Handbook on Hate Crime (Routledge, London 2014); G Mason and others, Policing Hate Crime: Understanding Communities and Prejudice (Routledge, London 2017).
4 R Wallace, ‘Racism Blamed for Fatal Stabbing of Indian Nitin Garg’ The Australian (3 January 2010) <https://www.adelaidenow.com.au/racism-blamed-for-fatal-stabbing-of-indian-nitin-garg/story-e6frg12c-1225815826590> accessed on 29 March 2020.
5 ‘15-year old arrested for Nitin Garg’s murder in Australia’ The Times of India (17 June 2010) <https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/15-year-old-arrested-for-Nitin-Gargs-murder-in-Australia/articleshow/6057551.cms> accessed on 29 March 2020; see also S Pointing and B Perry, ‘Climates of Hate: Media and State Inspired Victimisation of Muslims in Canada and Australia Since 9/11’ (2007) 19 Current Issues in Criminal Justice 150–71; G Mason, ‘Violence Against Indian Students in Australia: A Question of Dignity’ (2010) 21 Current Issues in Criminal Justice 461–65.
6 ‘Indian-origin Bus Driver Burned to Death in Australia: Police Say Not Hate Crime’ India West (28 October 2016) <https://www.indiawest.com/news/global_indian/indian-origin-bus-driver-burned-to-death-in-australia-police/article_7d8242e4-9d3f-11e6-b029-139c939a4b4c.html> accessed on 29 March 2020; ‘Indian-origin Bus Driver Manmeet Alisher Burnt Alive in Australia’ The Economic Times <https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/international/world-news/indian-origin-bus-driver-manmeet-alisher-burnt-alive-in-australia/articleshow/55114278.cms> accessed on 29 March 2020.
7 P Grewal, ‘Brisbane Bus Fire: An Indian Migrant, Bus Driver Manmeet Alisher Burnt to Death’ SBS Punjabi (28 October 2016) <https://www.sbs.com.au/yourlanguage/punjabi/en/article/2016/10/28/brisbane-bus-fire-indian-migrant-bus-driver-manmeet-alisher-burnt-death> accessed on 29 March 2020; J Bennet, ‘Manmeet Alisher’s Family Fear Brisbane Bus Killing Was Racially Motivated’ PTC News (29 October 2018) <https://www.ptcnews.tv/Punjabi-bus-driver-burn-alive-in-australia> accessed on 29 March 2020; A Mitchell-Whittington, ‘Moorooka Bus Fire: Driver’s Brother Suspects Attack Was a Hate Crime’ Brisbane Times (30 October 2016) <https://www.brisbanetimes.com.au/national/queensland/moorooka-bus-fire-drivers-brother-suspects-attack-was-a-hate-crime-20161029-gsdqj6.html> accessed on 29 March 2020; K Mettler, ‘A Beloved Indian Bus Driver Was Set on Fire in Australia. His Family Blames Racism’ Washington Post (31 October 2016) <https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/morning-mix/wp/2016/10/31/a-beloved-indian-bus-driver-was-set-on-fire-in-australia-his-family-blames-racism/?noredirect=on&utm_term=.6b0a39f7060f> accessed on 29 March 2020.
8 ‘Indian PM Modi Raises Manmeet Alisher’s Incineration Death in Australia with Malcolm Turnbull’ Bharat Times (31 October 2016) <http://www.bharattimes.com/2016/10/31/family-suggest-manmeet-death-hate-crime> accessed on 29 March 2020; J Bennett, ‘Brutal Bus Death Sparks Call from Indian PM to Turnbull’ The New Daily (31 October 2016) <https://thenewdaily.com.au/news/national/2016/10/31/bus-death-indian> accessed on 29 March 2020; M Safi, ‘Tracking the Diaspora – Punjabi Bus Driver’s Killer Former Mental Patient, Says Australia Government’ The Times of India (1 November 2016) <https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/world/rest-of-world/Tracking-the-diaspora-Punjabi-bus-drivers-killer-former-mental-patient-says-Australia-government/articleshowprint/55170541.cms> accessed on 29 March 2020.
9 ‘Manmeet Alisher’s ‘Last Rites Performed Amid Tears’ SBS News (4 November 2016) <https://www.sbs.com.au/yourlanguage/punjabi/en/article/2016/11/04/video-manmeet-alishers-last-rites-performed-amid-tears> accessed on 29 March 2020
10 ‘Manmeet Alisher Death: Investigation Ordered into Mental Health Treatment Provided to Accused Murderer’ ABC News (31 October 2016) <http://www.abc.net.au/news/2016-10-31/manmeet-alisher-death-independent-investigation-ordered/7979788> accessed on 29 March 2020.
11 Queensland Health Final Report, Health Services Investigation. Professor Paul Mullen, Angela Karooz, Leanne Beagley (20 January 2017) <https://www.health.qld.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0024/726162/mullen-review.pdf> accessed on 29 March 2020.
12 Re O’Donohue (no 185 of 2017) Mental Health Court 2018 MHC 8, delivered 10 August 2018 <https://archive.sclqld.org.au/qjudgment/2018/QMHC18-008.pdf> accessed on 29 March 2020.
13 Mullen Review, appendix 5, p 1.
14 Mullen Review (n 11) p 2.
15 Mullen Review (n 11) p 3.
16 Mullen Review (n 11) p 4.
17 Mullen Review (n 11) p 5.
18 Mullen Review (n 11) p 5.
19 Mullen Review (n 11) p 6.
20 Mullen Review (n 11) p 7.
21 Mullen Review (n 11) p 7.
22 Mullen Review (n 11) p 8.
23 Mullen Review (n 11) p 10.
24 Mullen Review (n 11) p 11.
25 Mullen Review (n 11) p 12.
26 Mullen Review (n 11) p 12.
27 Mullen Review (n 11) p 13.
28 Mullen Review (n 11) p 14.
29 Mullen Review (n 11) p 14.
30 Mullen Review (n 11) p 14.
31 Mullen Review (n 11) p 15.
32 Mullen Review (n 11) p 15.
33 Mullen Review (n 11) p 15.
34 Mullen Review (n 11) p 16.
35 Mullen Review (n 11) p 16.
36 Mullen Review (n 11) p 17.
37 Mullen Review (n 11) p 17.
38 Mullen Review (n 11) p 17.
39 Mullen Review (n 11) p 18.
40 Re O’Donohue (n 12) p 5, line 14.
41 Re O’Donohue (n 12) p 5, line 20.
42 Police Record of Interview 28 October 2016, transcript p 34, line 41.
43 Re O’Donohue (n 12) p 5, line 1.
44 Re O’Donohue (n 12) p 6, line 47; Even though the Mullen Review emphasized that Mr O’Donohue’s diagnosis was delusional disorder and cautioned against departing from that diagnosis, the Mental Health Court noted (at [45]) that only one of the five psychiatrists who gave expert evidence during hearing reported that Mr O’Donohue’s diagnosis was delusional disorder. All the other psychiatrists, including his current treating psychiatrist, reported that Mr O’Donohue’s diagnosis was paranoid schizophrenia.
45 Re O’Donohue (n 12) p 4, line 35.
46 Re O’Donohue (n 12) p 7, line 6.
47 Re O’Donohue (n 12) p 9, line 2.
48 Re O’Donohue (n 12) p 8, line 21.
49 Mental Health Act 2016, s 26 (Meaning of unsound mind): Unsound mind means a state of mental disease or natural mental infirmity described in the Criminal Code 1899 s 27 (1); Criminal Code 1899 s 27 (Insanity): ‘A person is not criminally responsible for an act or omission if at the time of doing the act or making the omission the person is in such a state of mental disease or natural mental infirmity as to deprive the person of capacity to understand what the person is doing, or of capacity to control the person’s actions, or of capacity to know that the person ought not to do the act or make the omission’.
50 Mental Health Act 2016, s 836 Forensic Order (Mental Health Court).
51 Mental Health Act 2016, s 137 Non-revocation period.
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120 R Jørgensen and others, ‘Effects on Cognitive and Clinical Insight with the Use of Guided Self-determination in Outpatients with Schizophrenia: A Randomized Open Trial’ (2015) 30(5) European Psychiatry 655–63.
121 SE Riggs and others, ‘Assessment of Cognitive Insight: A Qualitative Review’ (2015) 38 Schizophrenia Bulletin 338–50; R Ng, S Fish and E Granholm, ‘Insight and Theory of Mind in Schizophrenia’ (2015) 225 Psychiatry Research 169–74.
122 J Blanc, ‘Metacognition: Towards a New Approach to Quality of Life’ (2014) 23 Quality of Life Research 467–75; J L Vohs and others, ‘Metacognitive Capacity as a Predictor of Insight in First-episode Psychosis’ (2015) 203 Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease 372–78; KK Chan, ‘Associations of Symptoms, Neurocognition, and Metacognition with Insight in Schizophrenia Spectrum Disorders’ (2016) 65 Comprehensive Psychiatry 63–69.
123 LF Rinne and MM Mazzocco, ‘Knowing Right from Wrong in Mental Arithmetic Judgments: Calibration of Confidence Predicts the Development of Accuracy’ (2014) 9 Public Library of Science One 1–11.
124 EF Chua and others, ‘Understanding Metamemory: Neural Correlates of the Cognitive Process and Subjective Level of Confidence in Recognition Memory’ (2006) 29 NeuroImage 1150–60.
125 A Karow, FG Pajonk, J Reimer, F Hirdes, C Osterwald, D Naber and S Moritz, ‘The Dilemma of Insight into Illness in Schizophrenia: Self- and Expert-rated Insight and Quality of Life’ (2008) 258 European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience 152–159; AM Saperstein, J Thysen and A Medalia, ‘The Measure of Insight into Cognition: Reliability and Validity of Clinician-rated and Self-report Scales of Neurocognitive Insight for Schizophrenia’ (2012) 134 Schizophrenia Research 54–58.
126 CS Henry and N Ghaemi, ‘Insight in Psychosis: A Systematic Review of Treatment Interventions’ (2004) 37 Bipolar Disorders 194–99; GHM Pijnenborg and others, ‘Changes in Insight During Treatment for Psychotic Disorders: A Meta-analysis’ (2013) 144 Schizophrenia Research 109–17.
127 J McCambridge, J Witton and DR Elbourne, ‘Systematic Review of the Hawthorne Effect: New Concepts Are Needed to Study Research Participation Effects’ (2014) 67 Journal of Clinical Epidemiology 267–77; F Benedetti, E Carlino and A Piedimonte, ‘Increasing Uncertainty in CNS Clinical Trials: The Role of Placebo, Nocebo and Hawthorne Effects’ (2016) 15 Lancet Neurology 736–47.
128 TC Manschreck and NL Khan, ‘Recent Advances in the Treatment of Delusional Disorder’ (2006) 51 Canadian Journal of Psychiatry 114–19.
129 I Ibanez-Casas and others, ‘Deficits in Executive and Memory Processes in Delusional Disorder: A Case Control Study’ (2013) 8 Public Library of Science One e67341. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0067341; S Oflaz and others, ‘Working Memory Dysfunction in Delusional Disorders: An fMRI Investigation’ (2014) 56 Journal of Psychiatric Research 43–49.
130 MJ Roudsari, J Chun and T Manschreck, ‘Current Treatments for Delusional Disorder’ (2015) 2 Current Treatment Options in Psychiatry 151–67.
131 M Skelton, WA Khokhar and SP Thacker, ‘Treatments for Delusional Disorder’ Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2015 5 art no CD009785. DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD009785.pub2.
132 K O’Connor and others, ‘Treating Delusional Disorder: A Comparison of Cognitive-Behavioural Therapy and Attention Placebo Control’ (2007) 52 Canadian Journal of Psychiatry 182–90.
133 JE Muñoz-Negro and JA Cervilla, ‘A Systematic Review on the Pharmacological Treatment of Delusional Disorder’ (2016) 36 Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology 684–90; see also MR Mews and A Quante, ‘Comparative Efficacy and Acceptability of Existing Pharmacotherapies for Delusional Disorder: A Retrospective Case Series and Review of the Literature’ (2013) 33 Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology 512–19; J Jauncey-Cooke, ‘What Is the Evidence for Treating Delusional Disorder?’ (2016) 37 Issues in Mental Health Nursing 619–20; K Kulkarni and others, ‘Risperidone Versus Olanzapine in the Acute Treatment of Persistent Delusional Disorder: A Retrospective Analysis’ (2017) 253 Psychiatry Research 270–73.
134 BG Serrano and others, ‘Psychiatrists’ Opinion on Treatment Adherence in Delusional Disorder’ (2016) 33 European Psychiatry S570; see also M Sajatovic and others, ‘Measurement of Psychiatric Treatment Adherence’ (2010) 69 Journal of Psychosomatic Research 591–99; A González-Rodríguez and others, ‘A Systematic Review of Methods for the Measurement of Antipsychotic Adherence in Delusional Disorder’ (2018) 38 Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology 412–14.
135 DA Smith and PF Buckley, ‘Pharmacotherapy of Delusional Disorders in the Context of Offending and the Potential for Compulsory Treatment’ (2006) 24 Behavioural Science and Law 351–67; BL Herbel and H Stelmeach, ‘Involuntary Medication Treatment for Competency Restoration of 22 Defendants with Delusional Disorder’ (2007) 35 Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and Law 47–59; A González-Rodríguez and others, ‘A Descriptive Retrospective Study of the Treatment and Outpatient Service Use in a Clinical Group of Delusional Disorder Patients’ (2014) 7 Revista de Psiquiatria Salud Mental (Barcelona) 64–71.
136 JS Carroll, ‘Organizational Learning Activities in High-hazard Industries: The Logics Underlying Self-analysis’ (1998) 35 Journal of Management Studies 699–717; RA Iedema and others, ‘Turning the Medical Gaze in Upon Itself: Root Cause Analysis and the Investigation of Clinical Error’ (2006) 62 Social Science & Medicine 1605–15.
137 Iedema R, ‘A Root Cause Analysis of Clinical Error: Confronting the Disjunction Between Formal Rules and Situated Clinical Activity’ (2006) 63 Social Science & Medicine 1201–12; AA Wu, AKM Lipshutz and PJ Pronovost, ‘Effectiveness and Efficiency of Root Cause Analysis in Medicine’ (2008) 299 Journal of the American Medical Association 685–87.
138 Mullen Review (n 11) p 4.
139 Mullen Review (n 11) p 5.
140 Mullen Review (n 11) p 14.
141 Mullen Review (n 11) p 15.
142 Mullen Review (n 11) p 24.
143 Mullen Review (n 11) p 34.
144 Mullen Review (n 11) p 35.
145 Mullen Review (n 11) p 38.
146 Mullen Review (n 11) p 41.
147 Mullen Review (n 11) p 42.
148 Mullen Review (n 11) p 43.
149 Mullen Review (n 11) p 7.
150 Queensland Health Final Report, Health Services Investigation. Risk Management, Culture and Service Leadership. Metro South Addictions and Mental Health Services 21 August 2017. Associate Professor Richard Newton, Bernie Harrison <https://www.health.qld.gov.au/research-reports/reports/review-investigation/review-of-mental-health-services-following-moorooka-incident> accessed on 29 March 2020.
151 Health Service Investigation – Final Report p 4.
152 Health Service Investigation – Final Report p 4.
153 Queensland Health, ‘Actions Relating to Investigation into Treatment and Care of Anthony O’Donohue – Summary of Queensland Health’s Response to Reports’ (7 September 2018) <https://www.health.qld.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0027/726246/summary-qh-response.pdf> accessed on 29 March 2020.
154 Queensland Government, When Mental Health Care Meets Risk: A Queensland Sentinel Events Review into Homicide and Public Sector Mental Health Services (15 April 2016) <https://publications.qld.gov.au/dataset/mental-health-sentinel-events-review-2016> accessed on 29 March 2020.
155 See also R Scott and T Meehan, ‘Inter-agency Collaboration Between Mental Health Services and Police in Queensland’ (2017) 25 Australasian Psychiatry 399–402.
156 Queensland Health (n 153) 1.
157 Treatment and Care of Forensic Order, Treatment Support Order and High Risk Patients (5 March 2017) <https://www.health.qld.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0028/635932/cpp-forensic-policy.pdf> accessed on 29 March 2020.
158 M Vujkovic, ‘Manmeet Alisher Death: Mental Health Treatment “Deficiencies” Left Killer Free to Act’ ABC News (7 October 2018) <www.abc.net.au/news/2018-09-07/mental-health-report-into-anthony-odonohue-manmett-alisher-death/10210594> accessed on 29 March 2020.
159 Mullen Review (n 11) p 29.
160 Mullen Review (n 11) p 42.
161 Mullen Review (n 11) p 29.
162 R Scott, ‘Risk Management and the Suicidal Patient’ (2016) 23 Psychiatry, Psychology and Law 336–60.
163 M Doyle and M Dolan, ‘Violence Risk Assessment: Combining Actuarial and Clinical Information to Structure Clinical Judgements for the Formulation and Management of Risk’ (2002) 9 Journal of Psychiatric and Mental Health Nursing 649–57.
164 United Nations Committee on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (UNCRPD), ‘Concluding Observations on the Initial Report of Australia, Adopted by the Committee at its Tenth Session (2–13 September 2013)’ <http://tbinternet.ohchr.org/_layouts/treatybodyexternal/Download.aspx?symbolno=CRPD%2fC%2fAUS%2fCO%2f1&Lang=en> accessed on 29 March 2020.
165 See also A Wand and T Wand, ‘“Admit Voluntary, Schedule if Tries to Leave”: Placing Mental Health Acts in the Context of Mental Health and Human Rights’ (2013) 21 Australasian Psychiatry 137; A Hashmi and others, ‘Involuntary Detention: Do Psychiatrists Clinically Justify Continuing Involuntary Hospitalization?’ (2014) 85 Psychiatry Quarterly 285; S Callaghan and CJ Ryan, ‘An Evolving Revolution: Evaluating Australia’s Compliance with the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities in Mental Health Law’ (2016) 39 University of NSW Law Journal 596–624; C Ryan, ‘Our Duty to Know and Understand the Law’ (2018) 26 Australasian Psychiatry 453–55.
166 Commonwealth of Australia, Department of Health and Ageing, The Fifth National Mental Health and Suicide Prevention Plan (17 October 2017) <http://www.health.gov.au/internet/main/publishing.nsf/content/mental-fifth-national-mental-health-plan> accessed on 29 March 2020.
167 Commonwealth of Australia, Department of Health and Ageing, A National Framework for Recovery-oriented Mental Health Services: Guide for Practitioners and Providers (26 July 2012) <http://www.health.gov.au/internet/main/publishing.nsf/Content/mental-pubs-n-recovgde> accessed on 29 March 2020.
168 G Roberts and J Boardman, ‘Understanding “Recovery”’ (2013) 9 Advances in Psychiatric Treatment 400–409; RO Ralph and PE Corrigan (eds), Recovery in Mental Illness: Broadening our Understanding of Wellness (American Psychological Association, Washington, DC 2005); S Ramon, B Healy and N Renouf, ‘Recovery from Mental Illness as an Emergent Concept and Practice in Australia and the UK’ (2007) 53 International Journal of Social Psychiatry 108–22; T Meehan and others, ‘Recovery-based Practice: Do We Know What We Mean or Mean What We Know?’ (2008) 42 Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry 177–82; P Bracke, W Christiaens and M Verhaeghe, ‘Self‐esteem, Self‐efficacy, and the Balance of Peer Support among Persons with Chronic Mental Health Problems’ (2008) 38 Journal of Applied Social Psychology 436–59.
169 V Alguera-Lara and others, ‘Shared Decision Making in Mental Health: The Importance for Current Clinical Practice’ (2017) 25 Australasian Psychiatry 578–82.
170 P Deegan, ‘The Independent Living Movement and People with Psychiatric Disabilities: Taking Back Control Over Our Own Lives’ (1992) 15 Psychiatric Rehabilitation Journal 3–19; C Lloyd, G Waghorn and PL Williams, ‘Conceptualising Recovery in Mental Health Rehabilitation’ (2008) 71 British Journal of Occupational Therapy 321–28.
171 C Parsons, ‘The Dignity of Risk: Challenges in Moving On’ (2008) 15 Australian Nursing Journal 28; P Wolfson, F Holloway and H Killaspy, Enabling Recovery for People with Complex Mental Health Needs: A Template for Rehabilitation Services (Royal College of Psychiatrists, London 2009); M Amering and M Schmolke, Recovery in Mental Health: Reshaping Scientific and Clinical Responsibilities (Wiley-Blackwell, West Sussex, UK 2009); L Davidson, J Rakfeldt and J Strauss, The Roots of the Recovery Movement in Psychiatry: Lessons Learned (John Wiley & Sons, Hoboken, NJ 2010); P Weller, New Law and Ethics in Mental Health Advance Directives: The Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities and the Right to Choose (Routledge, London 2012); K Atterbury, ‘Preserving the Person: The Ethical Imperative of Recovery-oriented Practices’ (2014) 84(2) American Journal of Orthopsychiatry 182–89; D Pilgrim and A McCranie, Recovery and Mental Health: A Critical Sociological Account (Palgrave Macmillan, New York 2013).
172 L Davidson and D Roe, ‘Recovery From Versus Recovery In Serious Mental Illness: One Strategy for Lessening Confusion Plaguing Recovery’ (2007) 16 Journal of Mental Health 459–70.
173 M Leamy and others, ‘Conceptual Framework for Personal Recovery in Mental Health: Systematic Review and Narrative Synthesis’ (2011) British Journal of Psychiatry 445–52; V Shanks and others, ‘Measures of Personal Recovery: A Systematic Review’ (2011) 64 Psychiatric Services 974–80; M Slade and others, ‘Supporting Recovery in Patients with Psychosis through Care by Community-based Adult Mental Health Teams (REFOCUS): A Multisite, Cluster, Randomised, Controlled Trial’ (2015) 2 Lancet Psychiatry 503–14.
174 J Ochocka, G Nelson and R Janzen, ‘Moving Forward: Negotiating Self and External Circumstances in Recovery’ (2005) 28 Psychiatric Rehabilitation Journal 315–22; J Arenella, ‘Challenges for the Recovery Movement in the US: Will Its Light Reach the Darkest Corners?’ (2015) 268 Clinical Psychology Forum 7–9.
175 D Rose, ‘The Mainstreaming of Recovery’ (2014) 23 Journal of Mental Health 217–18; SR Stuart, L Tansey and E Quayle, ‘What We Talk About when We Talk About Recovery: A Systematic Review and Best-fit Framework Synthesis of Qualitative Literature’ (2017) 26 Journal of Mental Health 291–304.
176 Hunter and New England Local Health District v McKenna; Hunter and New England Local Health District v Simon [2014] HCA 44.
177 R Scott, ‘Liability for Health Services for Not Involuntarily Detaining and Treating a Mentally Ill Person’ (2015) 22 Psychiatry, Psychology and Law 1–31.
178 A Udechuku and others, ‘Assertive Community Treatment of the Mentally Ill: Service Model and Effectiveness’ (2005) 13 Australasian Psychiatry 129–34; SP Segal and PM Burgess, ‘Use of Community Treatment Orders to Prevent Psychiatric Hospitalization’ (2008) 42 Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry 732–39; D Milne, A O’Brien and B McKenna, ‘Community Treatment Orders and Competence to Consent’ (2009) 17 Australasian Psychiatry 273–78; M Light and others, ‘Out of Sight, Out of Mind: Making Involuntary Community Treatment Visible in the Mental Health System’ (2012) 196 Medical Journal of Australia 591; CJ Ryan, S Callaghan and M Large, ‘The Importance of Least Restrictive Care: The Clinical Implications of a Recent High Court Decision on Negligence’ (2015) 23 Australasian Psychiatry 415–17; R Vine and others, ‘Mental Health Service Utilisation after a Community Treatment Order: A Comparison Between Three Modes of Termination’ (2016) 50 Australian & New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry 363–70; S Isobel and P Clenaghan, ‘Community Treatment Orders (CTOs): A Demographic Cross-sectional Analysis’ (2016) 24 Australasian Psychiatry 272–77; J Little, ‘Misrepresenting Community Treatment Orders’ (2018) 26 Australasian Psychiatry 38–40; A Carroll and B McSherry, ‘Making Defensible Decisions in the Era of Recovery and Rights’ (2018) 26 Australasian Psychiatry 474–77.
179 D Carson and A Bain, Decision-making in Health, Social Care and Criminal Justice (Jessica Kingsley Publishers, London 2008); B McSherry and P Weller, Rethinking Rights-based Mental Health Laws (Hart, Portland, Oregon 2010); B McSherry and I Freckelton (eds), Coercive Care: Rights, Law and Policy (Routledge, London 2013).
180 R Scott, ‘Interventions to Address Violence Associated with Mental Illness’ (2008) 16 Australasian Psychiatry 405–11.
181 R Scott, ‘Rights-based Mental Health Legislation and the Right to be Treated’ (2008) 15 Journal of Law and Medicine 681–85.
182 PS Appelbaum and TG Gutheil, ‘Rotting with Their Rights on: Constitutional Theory and Clinical Reality in Drug Refusal by Psychiatric Patients’ (1979) 7 Bulletin of the American Association of Psychiatry and Law 306–15.
183 Appelbaum and Gutheil (n 182) 314; see also TG Gutheil, ‘In Search of True Freedom: Drug Refusal, Involuntary Medication and “Rotting with Your Rights on”’ (1980) 137 American Journal of Psychiatry 327–28.
184 K Kress, ‘Rotting with Their Rights on: Why the Criteria for Ending Commitment or Restraint of Liberty Need not Be the Same as the Criteria for Initiating Commitment or Restraint of Liberty, and How the Restraint May Sometimes Justifiably Continue after its Prerequisites Are No Longer Satisfied’ (2006) 24 Behavioral Sciences and the Law 573–98.
185 P Lepping, T Palmstierna and BN Raveesh, ‘Paternalism v. Autonomy – Are We Barking Up the Wrong Tree?’ (2016) 209 British Journal of Psychiatry 95–96.
186 L Davidson and others, ‘The Top Ten Concerns about Recovery Encountered in Mental Health System Transformation’ (2006) 57 Psychiatric Services 640–45; See also L Davidson and others, ‘Recovery in Serious Mental Illness: A New Wine or Just a New Bottle?’ (2005) 36 Professional Psychology Research and Practice 480–87; M Borg and L Davidson, ‘The Nature of Recovery as Lived in Everyday Experience’ (2008) 17 Journal of Mental Health 129–40.
187 RP Liberman and A Kopelowicz, ‘Recovery from Schizophrenia: A Concept in Search of Research’ (2005) 56 Psychiatric Services 735–42; see also H Stuart, J Arboleda-Florez and N Sartorius, Paradigms Lost: Fighting Stigma and the Lessons Learned (OUP, Oxford 2012).
188 Australian Medical Association, Position Statement on Mental Health (AMA, Canberra, ACT 2 March 2018) <https://ama.com.au/psychiatrists-newsletter/ama-position-statement-mental-health-2018> accessed on 29 March 2020; see also GM Meadows and others, ‘Better Access to Mental Health Care and the Failure of the Medicare Principle of Universality’ (2015) 202 Medical Journal of Australia 190–94; AF Jorm,‘The Quality Gap in Mental Health Treatment in Australia’ (2015) 49 Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry 934–35; PD McGorry and MP Hamilton, ‘Broken Promises and Missing Steps in Mental Health Reform’ (2017) 206 Medical Journal of Australia 487–89; AF Jorm, ‘Australia’s “Better Access” Scheme: Has it Had an Impact on Population Mental Health?’ (2018) 52 Australian & New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry 1057–62.
189 L Rains and others, ‘Variations in Patterns of Involuntary Hospitalisation and in Legal Frameworks: An International Comparative Study’ (2019) 6 Lancet Psychiatry 403–17.
190 S Allison and others, ‘Widespread Emergency Department Access Block: A Human Rights Issue in Australia?’ (2019) 27 Australasian Psychiatry 10–13; see also S Allison and others, ‘Access Block to Psychiatric Inpatient Admission: Implications for National Mental Health Service Planning’ (2018) 52 Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry 1213–14.
191 D Lawrence and S Kisely, ‘Review: Inequalities in Healthcare Provision for People with Severe Mental Illness’ (2010) 24 Journal of Psychopharmacology 61–68; Q Mai and others, ‘The Impact of Mental Illness on Potentially Preventable Hospitalisations: A Population-based Cohort Study’ (2011) 11 BioMed Central Psychiatry 1–11.
192 Mental Health Council of Australia, Not For Service: Experiences of Injustice and Despair in Mental Health Care in Australia (Mental Health Council of Australia, Canberra 2005) <https://www.humanrights.gov.au/sites/default/files/content/disability_rights/notforservice/documents/NFS_Finaldoc.pdf> accessed on 29 March 2020; SP Rosenberg and others, ‘Using Accountability for Mental Health to Drive Reform’ (2015) 203 Medical Journal of Australia 328–30; S Rosenberg and L Salvador-Carulla, ‘Accountability for Mental Health: The Australian Experience’ (2017) 20 Journal of Mental Health Policy Economics 37–54.
193 S Allison and T Bastiampillai, ‘Mental Health Services Reach the Tipping Point in Australian Acute Hospitals’ (2015) 203 Medical Journal of Australia 432–34; see also S Rosenberg and I Hickie, ‘No Gold Medals: Assessing Australia’s International Mental Health Performance’ (2019) 27 Australasian Psychiatry 36–40.
194 E Bromley and others, ‘Clinical Factors Associated with Successful Discharge from Assertive Community Treatment’ (2017) 53 Community Mental Health Journal 916–21.
195 PD McGorry and MP Hamilton, ‘Stepwise Expansion of Evidence-based Care is Needed for Mental Health Reform’ (2016) 204 Medical Journal of Australia 351–53.
196 H Lester, JQ Tritter and H Sorohan, ‘Patients’ and Health Professionals’ Views on Primary Care for People with Serious Mental Illness: Focus Group Study’ (2005) 330 British Medical Journal 1122–26.
197 P Magin and others, ‘Discomfort Sharing the General Practice Waiting Room with Mentally Ill Patients: A Cross-sectional Study’ (2013) 30 Family Practice 190–96; D Corrigan and others, ‘Mental Health Stigma and Primary Health Care Decisions’ (2014) 218 Psychiatry Research 35–38; L Magliano and others, ‘Effects of the Diagnostic Label “Schizophrenia”, Actively Used or Passively Accepted, on General Practitioners’ Views of this Disorder’ (2017) 63 International Journal of Social Psychiatry 224–34; AOR Vistorte and others, ‘Stigmatizing Attitudes of Primary Care Professionals Towards People with Mental Disorders: A Systematic Review’ (2018) 53 International Journal of Psychiatry 317–38.
198 M Phelan, L Stradins and S Morrison, ‘Physical Health of People with Severe Mental Illness’ (2001) 322 British Medical Journal 443–44; M Hert, CU Correll and J Bobes, ‘Physical Illness in Patients with Severe Mental Disorders: Prevalence, Impact of Medications and Disparities in Health Care’ (2011) 10 World Psychiatry 52–77; A Chadwick and others, ‘Minding Our Own Bodies: Reviewing the Literature Regarding the Perceptions of Service Users Diagnosed with Serious Mental Illness on Barriers to Accessing Physical Health Care’ (2012) 21 International Journal of Mental Health Nursing 211–19; J Ride and others, ‘Healthcare Costs for People with Serious Mental Illness in England: An Analysis of Costs across Primary Care, Hospital Care and Specialist Mental Healthcare’ (2019) Applied Health Economics and Health Policy doi:10.1007/s40258-019-00530-2.
199 GR Bond and RE Drake, ‘The Critical Ingredients of Assertive Community Treatment’ (2015) 14 World Psychiatry 240–42; AN Isaacs and others, ‘Outcomes of a Care Co-ordinated Service Model for Persons with Severe and Persistent Mental Illness: A Qualitative Study’ (2017) 63 International Journal Social Psychiatry 40–47; CA Woody and others, ‘Identifying Characteristics and Practices of Multi-disciplinary Team Reviews for Patients with Severe Mental Illness: A Systematic Review’ (2018) 26 Australasian Psychiatry 267–75.
200 A Waterreus and VA Morgan, ‘Treating Body, Treating Mind: The Experiences of People with Psychotic Disorders and Their General Practitioners – Findings from the Australian National Survey of High Impact Psychosis’ (2018) 52 Australian & New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry 561–72.
201 R Jones, B Major and C Fear, ‘Schizophrenia in a Primary Care Setting’ (2015) 17 Current Psychiatry Reports 1–7.
202 JCL Looi and S Kisely, ‘So We Beat on, Boats Against the Current, Borne Back Ceaselessly Into the Past: Continued Inaction on Public Mental Health’ (2018) 52 Australian & New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry 824–25.