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Abstract
For more than three decades there has been a growing interest, and concern, in the role that psychopathy plays in corporate affairs. The literature in this field is essentially interdisciplinary, drawing heavily on advances in neuroscience, behavioural and organisational psychology and criminology. In this paper, the authors open a line of enquiry on the role that law can play in the regulation, and remedies, available to deal with dysfunctional and psychopathic management. In this paper we argue that the impact of corporate psychopaths – particularly the sub-clinical types – is sometimes potentially devastating for the organisation, its mission, its employees and, where they exist, shareholders. In this article we outline the nature of corporate psychopathy and its impact on corporate entities and outline a range of potential legal remedies.
Ethical standards
Declaration of conflicts of interest
Clive Boddy has declared no conflicts of interest
Benedict Sheehy has declared no conflicts of interest
Brendon Murphy has declared no conflicts of interest
Ethical approval
This article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors.
Notes
1 The term ‘organisation’ refers broadly to a group of two or more people drawn together, applying resources, for a collectively agreed purpose. The narrower term, ‘corporation’, refers to the legal person, the creation of law. Not all organisations are businesses (for-profit) and not all business organisations are corporations: businesses may be organised as partnerships, ‘corporate groups’ of various types and combinations.
2 Olivier Mesly and Richard Maziade, ‘Bankers and Functional Psychopathy: The Risk of Losing Everything’ (2013) 16(1) Journal of Wealth Management 33.
3 Clive R Boddy, Unethical 20th Century Businesses and their Leaders: Were Enron and its CEO Corporate Psychopaths? (The Value of Pluralism in Advancing Management Research, Education and Practice: Management and Business History Track, Portsmouth University, 8–10 September 2015).
4 Added to this list should certainly be senior Wall Street executives who contributed to the 2008 global financial collapse but whom the Dept of Justice refuses to prosecute despite direct referrals for prosecution by the Senate. <http://www.warren.senate.gov/files/documents/2016-9-15_Referral_DOJ_IG_letter.pdf> accessed 3 August 2020
5 <https://www.psychology.org.au/news/media_releases/13September2016/Brooks/> accessed 3 August 2020
6 Paul Babiak, Craig S Neumann and Robert D Hare, ‘Corporate Psychopathy: Talking the Walk’ (2010) 28(2) Behavioral Sciences & the Law 174.
7 Michael R Levenson, Kent A Kiehl and Cory M Fitzpatrick, ‘Assessing Psychopathic Attributes in a Noninstitutionalized Population’ (1995) 68(1) Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 151.
8 Jeremy Coid and others, ‘Prevalence and Correlates of Psychopathic Traits in the Household Population of Great Britain’ (2009) 32(2) International Journal of Law and Psychiatry 65.
9 Mette KF Kreis and others, ‘The Comprehensive Assessment of Psychopathic Personality (CAPP): Content Validation Using Prototypical Analysis’ (2012) 26(3) Journal of Personality Disorders 402.
10 CR Boddy, The Development and Validity of the Psychopathy Measure–Management Research Versions 1 & 2 (The British Academy of Management Annual conference, Aston University, 2–5 September 2019).
11 For the use of the term ‘corporate’ see note 1 above.
12 Robert Hogan, ‘Trouble at the Top: Causes and Consequences of Managerial Incompetence’ (1994) 46(1) Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research 9.
13 Robert Hogan and Joyce Hogan, ‘Assessing Leadership: A View from the Dark Side’ (2001) 9(1–2) International Journal of Selection and Assessment 40.
14 Hervey Cleckley, The Mask of Sanity: An Attempt to Clarify Some Issues about the So-Called Psychopathic Personality (Martino Books 2015) [trans of 1941].
15 Richard Hare, Without Conscience: The Disturbing World of the Psychopaths Among Us (Guilford Publications 1999).
16 Paul Babiak and Richard Hare, Snakes in Suits: When Psychopaths Go to Work (Harper Collins 2011).
17 Jennifer L Skeem and David J Cooke, ‘Is Criminal Behavior a Central Component of Psychopathy? Conceptual Directions for Resolving the Debate’ (2010) 22(2) Psychological Assessment 433. For separate discussion on the literature, please see Appendix.
18 Daniel Jones and Robert Hare, ‘The Mismeasure of Psychopathy: A Commentary on Boddy’s PM-MRV’ (2016) 138(3) Journal of Business Ethics 579.
19 From a clinical perspective, we note that there is no such condition as ‘psychopath’ in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5), the standard used for the diagnosis of recognised psychological disorders. The DSM does, however, identify a range of clinical personality disorders that overlap with most of the traits caught in the umbrella term ‘psychopath’, including borderline personality disorder, antisocial personality disorder and particularly narcissistic personality disorder. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders: DSM-5 (American Psychiatric Association, 5th edn, 2013); ibid.
20 See, for example, Katarina Fritzon, Joanna Wilde and Rosalind Searle, ‘Why that Difficult Person You Work with Probably Isn’t a Psychopath’, The Conversation, 29 Jan 2018.
21 Delroy L Paulhus and Kevin M Williams, ‘The Dark Triad of Personality: Narcissism, Machiavellianism, and Psychopathy’ (2002) 36(6) Journal of Research in Personality 556.
22 Richard Christie and Florence Geis (eds), Studies in Machiavellianism (Academic Press 1970); Robert D Hare, ‘Comparison of Procedures for the Assessment of Psychopathy’ (1985) 53(1) Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 7; Stephen Hart and Robert D Hare, ‘The Association between Psychopathy and Narcissism: Theoretical Views and Empirical Evidence’ in Elsa Ronningstam (ed), Disorders of Narcissism — Theoretical, Empirical, and Clinical Implications (American Psychiatric Press 1998) 415–36; Gordon Hodson, Sarah M Hogg and Cara C MacInnis, ‘The Role of “Dark Personalities” (Narcissism, Machiavellianism, Psychopathy), Big Five Personality Factors, and Ideology in Explaining Prejudice’ (2009) 43(4) Journal of Research in Personality 686; Peter K Jonason and Gregory D Webster, ‘The Dirty Dozen: A Concise Measure of the Dark Triad’ (2010) 22(2) Psychological Assessment 420; David A Lishner and others, ‘Psychopathy, Narcissism, and Borderline Personality: A Critical Test of the Affective Empathy-Impairment Hypothesis’ (2015) 86(C) Personality and Individual Differences 257; John McHoskey, ‘Narcissism and Machiavellianism’ (1995) 77(3) Psychological Reports 755; Gardiner Morse, ‘Executive Psychopaths’ (2004) 82(10) Harvard Business Review 20; Herschel Prins, Psychopaths: An Introduction (Waterside Press 2013); Robert N Raskin and Calvin S Hall, ‘A Narcissistic Personality Inventory’ (1979) 45(2) Psychological Reports 590; Richard W Robins and Jennifer S Beer, ‘Positive Illusions About the Self: Short-Term Benefits and Long-Term Costs’ (2001) 80(2) Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 340; Gregory D Webster and Peter K Jonason, ‘Putting the “IRT” in “Dirty”: Item Response Theory Analyses of the Dark Triad Dirty Dozen—An Efficient Measure of Narcissism, Psychopathy, and Machiavellianism’ (2013) 54(2) Personality and Individual Differences 302.
23 Babiak and Hare (n 16).
24 Clive Boddy, ‘The Dark Side of Management Decisions: Organisational Psychopaths’ (2006) 44(10) Management Decision 1461.
25 Ibid.
26 For fuller discussion of the term and the construct, see Appendix.
27 Cleckley (n 14).
28 Dan S Chiaburu, Ismael Diaz and Ans De Vos, ‘Employee Alienation: Relationships with Careerism and Career Satisfaction’ (2013) 28(1) Journal of Managerial Psychology 4.
29 Note: for the purposes of this article we use the term ‘organisation’ and ‘corporation’ interchangeably. However, a distinction can be drawn between an incorporated and an unincorporated entity, as well as a for-profit and not-for profit entity, and a public and private corporation. In the present context, fine distinctions are not necessary because we are discussing the impact of leadership within any hierarchical organisation.
30 Holly Andrews and Paul Furniss, ‘A Successful Leader or a Psychopathic Individual?’ (2009) 53(4) Management Services 22; Babiak and Hare (n 16); Cleckley (n 14).
31 Nicholas S Holtzman and Michael J Strube, ‘People with Dark Personalities Tend to Create a Physically Attractive Veneer’ (2013) 4(4) Social Psychological and Personality Science 461.
32 Marilynn Baker, A Multiple Case Study of the Dark Side of Leadership: An Exploration of Executives Who Led their Companies to Disastrous Results Versus Exemplary Ceos Who Did Not (Regent University 2013).
33 Clive RP Boddy, ‘Corporate Psychopaths and Organizational Type’ (2010) 10(4) Journal of Public Affairs 300; Manfred de Vries, ‘Do You Hate Your Boss?’ (2016) Harvard Business Review 1; Richard Hare (n 15); Martha Stout, ‘The Ice People: Living Among Us Are People with No Conscience, No Emotions and No Conception of Love. Welcome to the Chilling World of the Sociopath’ (2005) 38(1) Psychology Today 72.
34 Nowhere is this better exemplified than in the enduring popularity of Sun Tzu’s Art of War as a business text and the work of Robert Greene. See Robert Greene and Joost Ellfers, The 48 Laws of Power (Viking Press 1998).
35 On the difference between corporation and organisation, see note 1 above.
36 Clive R Boddy, ‘The Corporate Psychopaths Theory of the Global Financial Crisis’ (Pt Springer Netherlands) (2011) 102(2) Journal of Business Ethics 255.
37 Clive Boddy, ‘Corporate Psychopaths, Conflict, Employee Affective Well-being and Counterproductive Work Behaviour’ (2014) 121(1) Journal of Business Ethics 107.
38 Alan Goldman, ‘Personality Disorders in Leaders: Implications of the DSM IV-Tr in Assessing Dysfunctional Organizations’ (2006) 21(5) Journal of Managerial Psychology 392.
39 Babiak and Hare (n 16).
40 Ibid.
41 Ibid xiii.
42 Adrian Furnham and others, ‘Measuring Malevolence: Quantitative Issues Surrounding the Dark Triad of Personality’ (2014) 67 Personality and Individual Differences.
43 Boddy, ‘The Corporate Psychopaths Theory’ (n 36).
44 JJ Ray and JAB Ray, ‘Some Apparent Advantages of Subclinical Psychopathy’ (1982) 117(1) The Journal of Social Psychology 135.
45 Chin Wei Ong and others, ‘The Leader Ship Is Sinking: A Temporal Investigation of Narcissistic Leadership’ (2016) 84(2) Journal of Personality 237.
46 The extent to which that practice achieves lasting change is open to debate. Chatterjee & Hambrick, for example, found that of 111 CEOs studied, narcissism tended to result in high-risk, high-profile ventures that sometimes produced significant profits, but equally significant losses. When compared with organisations over time that scored low on leadership narcissism, there was virtually no difference overall. See Arijit Chatterjee and Donald C Hambrick, ‘It’s All about Me: Narcissistic Chief and Executive Officers and their Effects on Company Strategy and Performance’ (2007) 52(3) Administrative Science Quarterly 351.
47 Jay A Conger, ‘The Dark Side of Leadership’ (1990) 19(2) Organizational Dynamics 44.
48 Celia Wells, Corporations and Criminal Responsibility (2nd edn, OUP 2001).
49 Kim Klarskov Jeppesen and Christina Leder, ‘Auditors’ Experience with Corporate Psychopaths’ (2016) 23(4) Journal of Financial Crime 870.
50 Jonida Lesha and Denis Lesha, ‘Psychopathy and White Collar Crime: A Review of Literature’ (2012) 8(2) South East European University Review.
51 Steven H Appelbaum, Gary Semerjian and Krishan Mohan, ‘Workplace Bullying: Consequences, Causes and Controls (Part One)’ (2012) 44(4) Industrial and Commercial Training 203; Henry S Cheang and Steven H Appelbaum, ‘Corporate Psychopathy: Deviant Workplace Behaviour and Toxic Leaders – Part One’ (2015) 47(4) Industrial and Commercial Training 165; Henry S Cheang and Steven H Appelbaum, ‘Corporate Psychopathy: Deviant Workplace Behaviour and Toxic Leaders – Part Two’ (2015) 47(5) Industrial and Commercial Training 236; Anne Fennimore and Arthur Sementelli, ‘Public Entrepreneurship and Sub-Clinical Psychopaths: A Conceptual Frame and Implications’ (2016) 29(6) International Journal of Public Sector Management 612.
52 At the time of writing, French authorities are prosecuting a number of executives for 35 suicides of French Telecom employees who took their own lives as a result of corporate restructuring and associated nudging, harassment and bullying practices. See Angelique Chrisafis, ‘Workplace Bullying Trial that Shocked France Draws to Close’, The Guardian, (online), 8 July 2019 <https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/jul/08/france-telecom-workplace-bullying-trial-draws-to-close> accessed 3 August 2020; Hugh Schofield, ‘France Télécom Bullying Trial Sheds Light on Spate of Suicides’, BBC News (online), 12 July 2019 <https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-48948776> accessed 3 August 2020
53 Peter M Senge, The Fifth Discipline: The Art and Practice of the Learning Organization (rev edn, Doubleday/Currency 2006) 15.
54 Chatterjee and Hambrick (n 46) 351; Christopher Marcin Kowalski and others, ‘The Dark Triad Traits and Intelligence: Machiavellians Are Bright, and Narcissists and Psychopaths Are Ordinary’ (2018) 135 Personality and Individual Differences 1; Gordon Pennycook and others, ‘Dunning-Kruger Effects in Reasoning: Theoretical Implications of the Failure to Recognize Incompetence’ (2017) 24(6) Psychonomic Bulletin & Review 1774.
55 Ong and others (n 45).
56 Elzbieta Sanecka, ‘Perceived Supervisor’s Subclinical Psychopathy, and Subordinate’s Organizational Commitment, Job Satisfaction and Satisfaction with Executive’ (2013) 2 Journal of Education Culture and Society 172.
57 Clive Boddy and Ross Taplin, ‘The Influence of Corporate Psychopaths on Job Satisfaction and its Determinants’ (2016) 37(6) International Journal of Manpower 965.
58 Daniel Pink, Drive: The Surprising Truth About What Motivates Us (Penguin 2011).
59 Cynthia Mathieu and others, ‘What Are the Effects of Psychopathic Traits in a Supervisor on Employees’ Psychological Distress?’ (2012) 16(2) Journal of Organizational Culture, Communications and Conflict 81; Cynthia Mathieu and others, ‘A Dark Side of Leadership: Corporate Psychopathy and its Influence on Employee Well-being and Job Satisfaction’ (2014) 59(C) Personality and Individual Differences 83.
60 Ibid.
61 Blake Ashforth, ‘Petty Tyranny in Organizations’ (1994) 47(7) Human Relations 755; Crystal IC Farh and Zhijun Chen, ‘Beyond the Individual Victim: Multilevel Consequences of Abusive Supervision in Teams’ (2014) 99(6) Journal of Applied Psychology 1074; Mathieu and others (n 59); John J Sosik and Veronica M Godshalk, ‘Leadership Styles, Mentoring Functions Received, and Job‐related Stress: A Conceptual Model and Preliminary Study’ (2000) 21(4) Journal of Organizational Behavior 365; Bennett J Tepper, ‘Consequences of Abusive Supervision’ (2000) 43(2) Academy of Management Journal 178; Yucheng Zhang and Zhenyu Liao, ‘Consequences of Abusive Supervision: A Meta-Analytic Review’ (2015) 32(4) Asia Pacific Journal of Management 959.
62 Boddy, ‘Corporate Psychopaths, Conflict, Employee Affective Well-being’ (n 37) 107.
63 Boddy, ‘The Dark Side of Management Decisions’ (n 24).
64 Valerie A Johnson, Terry A Beehr and Kimberly E O’brien, ‘Determining the Relationship between Employee Psychopathy and Strain: Does the Type of Psychopathy Matter?’ (2015) 22(2) International Journal of Stress Management 111; E Malovany, An Enquiry Into Corporate Psychopathy: The Unheard Voice of Follower Experience (Capell University 2014).
65 Boddy and Taplin (n 57).
66 John Clarke, Working with Monsters: How to Identify and Protect Yourself from the Workplace Psychopath (Random House 2005) 219.
67 Clive Roland Boddy, ‘Organisational Psychopaths: A Ten Year Update’ (2015) 53(10) Management Decision 2407.
68 Blaine H Gaddis and Jeff L Foster, ‘Meta-Analysis of Dark Side Personality Characteristics and Critical Work Behaviors Among Leaders across the Globe: Findings and Implications for Leadership Development and Executive Coaching’ (2015) 64(1) Applied Psychology 25.
69 Lester Irving, Groupthink: Psychological Studies of Policy Decisions and Fiascoes (2nd edn, Houghton Mifflin 1982).
70 Another example of what Cohen once rightly described as ‘technobabble’. See Stanley Cohen, Visions of Social Control (Polity Press 1985).
71 Carmen Maria Albrecht, Ariane Stephanie Dominique Finkel and Katja Nothhelfer, ‘What if the Ceo is Perceived as a Corporate Psychopath? The Effects of Perceived Corporate Psychopathy on Product, Stock and Employer Attractiveness’ (Global Marketing conference, Hong Kong, 21–24 July 2016); T Garry and others, ‘The Effects of Corporate Psychopathy within Business-to-Business Networks’ (Paper presented at The Value of Pluralism in Advancing Management Research, Education and Practice: Marketing and Retail Track, University of Portsmouth, 8–10 September 2015).
72 Clive Boddy, ‘The Impact of Corporate Psychopaths on Corporate Reputation and Marketing’ (2012) 12(1) The Marketing Review 79.
73 In Australia, VW was fined $125 million for false and misleading statements in breach of Australian Consumer Law: Australian Competition and Consumer Commission v Volkswagen Aktiengesellschaft [2019] FCA 2166. This was part of a global response and prosecutions of executives for fraud and conspiracy. See, eg, Ludwig Burger and Michelle Martin, ‘German Prosecutors Charge Former Volkswagen CEO Winterkorn with Fraud’, Sydney Morning Herald (online), 16 April 2019 <https://www.smh.com.au/business/companies/german-prosecutors-charge-former-volkswagen-ceo-winterkorn-with-fraud-20190416-p51egy.html> accessed 3 August 2020; Canadian Press, ‘Volkswagen Ordered to Pay $196.5M After Pleading Guilty to All Canadian Emissions-cheating Charges’, CBC (online), 22 January 2020 <https://www.cbc.ca/news/business/volkswagen-pleads-guilty-emissions-cheating-canada-1.5436346> accessed 3 August 2020; Nathan Bomey, ‘VW Pleads Guilty to Conspiracy, Obstruction of Justice; 6 Execs Charged’ USA Today (online), 11 January 2017 <https://www.usatoday.com/story/money/cars/2017/01/11/volkswagen-epa-doj-department-of-justice-settlement/96439678/> accessed 3 August 2020
74 Ron Rimkus, ‘Parmalat’, Financial Scandals, Scoundrels & Crises (online), 29 November 2016 <https://www.econcrises.org/2016/11/29/parmalat/> accessed 3 August 2020
75 Laws based on status formerly prohibited interracial marriage in the USA and supported apartheid in South Africa.
76 Such laws are found in international law, such as the UN Convention Against Discrimination.
77 Benedict Sheehy and Donald Feaver, ‘Designing Effective Regulation: A Normative Theory’ (2015) 38(1) University of New South Wales Law Journal 392.
78 James Blair, The Psychopath Emotion and the Brain (Malden, MA: Blackwell Pub. 2005).
79 On this issue, consider academic lawyer Hank Greely’s comment: ‘I am more than my genes’, meaning it is cognition and ultimately cogitations that matter. Donald Kennedy, ‘Neuroethics: Mapping a New Interdiscipline’ in Judy Illes (ed), Neuroethics: Defining the Issues in Theory, Practice, and Policy (Oxford Scholarship Online 2004) 313.
80 Benedict Sheehy, ‘Conceptual and Institutional Interfaces Between CSR: Corporate Law and the Problem of Social Costs’ (2017) 12(1) Virginia Law & Business Review 147.
81 Benedict Sheehy, ‘Corporations and Social Costs: The Wal-Mart Case Study’ (2004) 24(1) Journal of Law and Commerce 55.
82 Indeed, this aspect of corporate norms has spawned a number of dramatised documentaries such as The Corporation, The Smartest Guys in the Room and The Big Short.
83 Babiak, Neumann and Hare (n 6).
84 One implication may be that psychopaths may be more willing and able to exercise or manipulate rules and rights in their favour than others, and so skew law’s balanced default of leaving it to individuals to identify and exercise their rights. Those with emotional intelligence are more likely to be discerning in what issues to escalate, whereas psychopaths tend to be more aggressive in this respect.
85 Benedict Sheehy, ‘Explaining the Corporation to Non-Specialists: A Graphic Approach’ (2016) 40(2) University of Western Australia 69.
86 Ibid.
87 Benedict Sheehy and Donald Feaver, ‘Anglo-American Directors’ Legal Duties and CSR: Prohibited, Permitted or Prescribed?’ (2014) 37(1) Dalhousie Law Journal 345.
88 Ibid.
89 In the parlance, this detached behaviour in the face of considerable risk is referred to as acting ‘coolly’ – a characteristic often associated with psychopaths who are unemotional when engaging in risky behaviour.
90 Benedict Sheehy, ‘Defining CSR: Problems and Solutions’ (2015) 131(3) J Bus Ethics 625.
91 Boddy, ‘The Dark Side of Management Decisions’ (n 24).
92 James V Ray and Shayne Jones, ‘Self-reported Psychopathic Traits and their Relation to Intentions to Engage in Environmental Offending’ (2011) 55(3) International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology 370.
93 Stephen Smulowitz and John Almandoz, ‘CEO Pay, Corporate Culture and Illegal Activity in U.S. Banks: Are We Incentivizing Wrongdoing?’ (2016) 2016(1) Academy of Management Proceedings (online).
94 James A Brickley, Jeffrey L Coles and Gregg Jarrell, ‘Leadership Structure: Separating the CEO and Chairman of the Board’ (1997) 3(3) Journal of Corporate Finance 189.
95 Royal Commission into Misconduct in the Banking, Superannuation and Financial Services Industry, conducted by the Commissioner, the Honourable Kenneth Madison Hayne AC QC, submitted final report to the Governor-General on 1 February 2019.
96 Criminal Code 1995 (Cth), ss 12.1–12.6.
97 The court in obiter stated that directors were responsible for ensuring that appropriate systems were in place in AWA Ltd v Daniels t/as Deloitte Haskins & Sells (1992) 7 ACSR 759.
98 For authoritative summary, see C Sappideen, Prue Vines and John G Fleming, Fleming’s the Law of Torts (10th edn, Pyrmont, N.S.W.: Thomson Reuters/Lawbook Co. 2011); Neil Foster, Workplace Health and Safety Law in Australia (2nd edn, Chatswood, N.S.W.: LexisNexis Butterworths 2016).
99 Boddy, ‘The Dark Side of Management Decisions’ (n 24).
100 Mathieu and others (n 59).
101 For conceptual discussion, see Jason Harris and Anil Hargovan, ‘Revisiting the Business Judgement Rule’ (2014) 66(10) Governance Directions 634.
102 Margaret M Blair and Lynn A Stout, ‘A Team Production Theory of Corporate Law’ (1999) 85 Virginia Law Review 247.
103 Sheehy, ‘Corporations and Social Costs: The Wal-Mart Case Study’ (n 81).
104 Frank L Schmidt and John E Hunter, ‘The Validity and Utility of Selection Methods in Personnel Psychology: Practical and Theoretical Implications of 85 Years of Research Findings’ (1998) 124(2) Psychological Bulletin 262. See also Ann Marie Ryan and Marja Lasek, ‘Negligent Hiring and Defamation: Areas of Liability Related to Pre-Employment Inquiries’ (1991) 44(2) Personnel Psychology 293.
105 Michael A Campion, David K Palmer and James E Campion, ‘A Review of Structure in the Selection Interview’ (1997) 50(3) Personnel Psychology 655.
106 Derek S Chapman and David I Zweig, ‘Developing a Nomological Network for Interview Structure: Antecedents and Consequences of the Structured Selection Interview’ (2005) 58(3) Personnel Psychology 673.
107 Schmidt and Hunter (n 104).
108 Brian S Connelly, Scott O Lilienfeld and Kelly M Schmeelk, ‘Integrity Tests and Morality: Associations with Ego Development, Moral Reasoning, and Psychopathic Personality’ (2006) 14(1) International Journal of Selection and Assessment 82.
109 Mitja D Back, Stefan C Schmukle and Boris Egloff, ‘Why Are Narcissists so Charming at First Sight? Decoding the Narcissism-Popularity Link at Zero Acquaintance’ (2010) 98(1) Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 132.
110 Hogan and Hogan, ‘Assessing Leadership’ (n 13); Robert Hogan and Joyce Hogan, Hogan Personality Inventory Manual (Hogan Press, 2007); Robert Hogan and Joyce Hogan, Hogan Development Survey Manual (Hogan Press 2009).
111 Clive Roland Boddy, ‘Psychopathy Screening for Public Leadership’ (2016) 12(4) International Journal of Public Leadership 254.
112 Justice Kenneth Hayne, Final Report of the Royal Commission into Misconduct in the Banking, Superannuation and Financial Services Industry (Commonwealth of Australia 2019).
113 Michael R Levenson, ‘Rethinking Psychopathy’ (1992) 2(1) Theory & Psychology 51; Michael R Levenson, ‘Psychopaths Are Not Necessarily Impulsive, etc: A Reply to Feelgood and Rantzen’ (1993) 3(2) Theory & Psychology 229.
114 Norman G Poythress and Jason R Hall, ‘Psychopathy and Impulsivity Reconsidered’ (2011) 16(2) Aggression and Violent Behavior 120.
115 Kathrin Weidacker and others, ‘Psychopathy and Impulsivity: The Relationship of the Triarchic Model of Psychopathy to Different Forms of Impulsivity in Offenders and Community Participants’ (2017) 114 Personality and Individual Differences 134.
116 Yu Gao and Adrian Raine, ‘Successful and Unsuccessful Psychopaths: A Neurobiological Model’ (2010) 28(2) Behavioral Sciences & the Law 194.
117 NE Anderson and KA Kiehl, ‘The Psychopath Magnetized: Insights from Brain Imaging’ (2012) 16(1) Trends in Cognitive Science 52.
118 RJ Blair, ‘Neurocognitive Models of Aggression, the Antisocial Personality Disorders, and Psychopathy’ (2001) 71(6) Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery and Psychiatry 727; RJR. Blair and L Cipolotti, ‘Impaired Social Response Reversal: A Case of Acquired Sociopathy’ (2000) 123(6) Brain 1122.
119 James Fallon, The Psychopath Inside: A Neuroscientist’s Personal Journey Into the Dark Side of the Brain (Penguin 2013).
120 Hare, Without Conscience (n 15).