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ABSTRACT
This paper examines references to Jews in the texts produced within the framework of the Ruthenian (Ukrainian) national movement in Habsburg Galicia during the 1830s and 1840s. Looking at literary texts, journalism, correspondence, and minutes produced by the Ruthenian activists, the paper gauges them for “antisemitic sentiments.” This paper offers the first systematic study of antisemitism in Ukrainian national discourse in Galicia during its Romanticist phase. Tracing the origins of Ruthenian antisemitism, this article disentangles nationalism proper from historical tradition, folk culture, and other intellectual influences. It also argues that there have been important differences between the images of the Jew in Ukrainian and Polish romantic nationalism, as well as between the Ukrainian national movement in the Habsburg and Russian empires.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author.
Notes on contributor
Andriy Zayarnyuk is an associate professor of history at the University of Winnipeg. He received his PhD in history from the University of Alberta. He is the author of Idioms of Emancipation: Projects of “Liberation” and the Mid-Nineteenth Century Galician Village (2007, in Ukrainian) and Framing the Ukrainian Peasantry in Habsburg Galicia, 1846–1914 (2013).
Notes
1 This paper uses “Ruthenian” (rusyn, rus’kyi) rather than Ukrainian as more appropriate for the period. Beside being the dominant self-identification for both local patriotic activists and general population, the term accounts for the nation-building projects other than Ukrainian that targeted the same ethnic group.
2 Struve, Bauern und Nation in Galizien, 388–95.
3 Among the first to articulate the fear of Jewish demographic explosion and social exploitation of Ruthenians was the leading Ukrainian national populist Volodymyr Barvins’kyi in his 1882 Research in the Field of Statistics (Doslidy z polia statystyky), 22–43. Ivan Franko succumbed to this ethnicized social imagination too: Franko, “Semityzm i antysemityzm u Halychyni,” 313–30.
4 Kozik, Ukraiński ruch narodowy w Galicji w latach 1830–1848, 192–3.
5 Porter, When Nationalism Began to Hate.
6 Kohn, Nationalism: Its Meaning and History, 38–53.
7 Shashkevych, ed., Rusalka Dnistrovaia.
8 Leontovych, Odpowiedź na artykuł o nieistnieniu Rusinów umieszczony w Numerze 2gim Dzieńnika Narodowego; [Levytskyi], Besida hovorena dnia 22 Maia 1848 roku v Drohobychy pry osnovaniï Komiteta Ruskoho; [Lozyns’kyi], Slovo v chasi torzhestvennoi Sluzhby Bozhoi odpravlenoi z postanovleniia Holovnoi Rady Ruskoi z prychyny vstupleniia na tron Tsisarstva Avstriiskoho Ieho Velychestva Kesaria i Korolia Frantsishka Iosyfa Iho v tserkvi Lvovskoi mistskoi or. hr. kat. v prytomsnosty vsikh V. V. c. k. Voiskovykh i Tsyvil’nykh Ouriadiv i mnohochyslenno sobrannoho liuda, izrechonnoie Petrom Lozyns’kym Vikariiem toizhe tserkvy i chlenom Holovnoi Ruskoi Rady dnia 10 Dekevria 1848; [Mokh], Slovo do naroda halytsko-ruskoho, holosyv Rudol’f Mokh, sekretar Rady Ruskoï Ounevskoi, parokh z Lahodova v chasi Narodnoho Sobraniia dnia 12 Oktovriia/ 30 septembria 1848; [Shashkevych], Besida podchas festynu narodovoho ruskoho, vidpravlenoho v Stanislavovi dnia 30 Maia 1848 hovorena Hryhoriiem Shashkevychem, Parokhom Ouhrynivskim.
9 Horoszkiewicz, Mowa Juliana Horoszkiewicza na pierwszym publicznem posiędzeniu zboru ruskiego we Lwowie dnia 15go Czerwca 1848, 2–3.
10 Pietruszewicz, Słów kilka napisanych w obronie ruskiej narodowści, 4.
11 Shakndrij, Jews in Ukrainian Literature, 11–9; Plokhy, The Cossack Myth, 26, 56, 304–6.
12 Kostomarov, “The Book of the Genesis of the Ukrainian People (Excerpt),” 97.
13 Denkschrift der ruthenischen Nation in Galizien zur Ausklärung ihrer Verhältnisse, 7.
14 Treshchakovskyi, “Hospodarstvo sel’ske,” Zoria Halyts’ka, ch. 20, March 3, 1849, 119.
15 Studyns’kyi, Korespondentsiia Iakova Holovats’koho v litakh 1835–49, 132.
16 Holovats’kyi, “Podorozh po Halyts’kii ta Uhors’kii Rusi, opysana v lystakh do pryiatelia u L.,” 41.
17 Nakhlik, ed. Syn Rusi, 1833, 22–3, 26–7, 34–5.
18 Ibid., 12–4.
19 Studyns’kyi, Korespondentsiia Iakova Holovats’koho v litakh 1835–49, VI, CXV–VI.
20 Studyns’kyi, Korespondentsiia, 43–4.
21 O. L. … “O iazytsi ruskim,” Zoria Halytska, ch. 3, January 10, 1849, 1.
22 Štaif, “The Image of the Other in the Nineteenth Century,” 89.
23 Kozik, Między reakcją a rewolucją, 211.
24 Podolyns’kyi, Slovo perestorohy.
25 Vienna Citizens Committee, italics mine.
26 Studyns’kyi, Korespondentsiia, 271.
27 Studyns’kyi, Korespondentsiia, 310.
28 Friedman, Die Galizischen Juden im Kampfe um Ihre Gleichberechtigung ( 1848–1868 ), 61; Himka, “Dimensions of a Triangle: Polish-Ukrainian-Jewish Relations in Austrian Galicia,” 34.
29 Porter, When Nationalism Began to Hate, 37.
30 Osterkamp, “Imperial Diversity in the Village.”
31 Popel [Popiel], Ohłaszenyje Mychaiła Popela do wsich Rusyniu wo Samborskoj radi na 25, 1. Interestingly enough, Michal Popiel, a Greek Catholic and a Polish revolutionary, used ievrei instead of more common zhyd, in this text.
32 Pylypovych, ed., Dukh i revnist’: Vladyka Snihurs’kyi ta inshi peremyshliany, 240.
33 “Proshenie Holovnoi Ruskoi Rady o pryskoren’ie ustroieniia uchylyshchnykh dil v Halychyni do Vysokoho ts. K. Ministerstva prosvishcheniia d. 12 Lyptsia podanoie,” Zoria Halytska, ch. 61, August 1, 1849, 366.
34 Turii, ed. Holovna Rus’ka Rada, 1848–1851. Protokoly zasidan’ i knyha korespondentsii, 57.
35 Studyns’kyi, Korespondentsiia, 283.
36 Dankevych, “Besida o horiltse (diialog),” “Dolzhnyk zhydovskyi,” “Shatana zhada,” 45–61.
37 Ibid, 56.
38 Ibid, 59.
39 Kieniewicz, The Emancipation of the Polish Peasantry, 116.
40 Kapral’, Pryvilei natsional’nykh hromad mista L’vova (XIV-XVIII st.), 461.
41 Polonsky, The Jews in Poland and Russia, v.1, 101.
42 Franko, “Do istorii ukrains’koho vertepu XVIII v.,” 310–29; Galagan, “Malorusskii vertep. Predvaritelnye zamechaniia,” 29–30.
43 Statistische Übersicht der Königreiche Galizien und Lodomerien im Jahre 1840, 47. Jewish presence in this business probably increased in the second half of the nineteenth century. While in 1840 forty-two percent of all East Galician tavern keepers were Jewish (2445 out of 5873), by 1900, in Eastern Galicia, Jews accounted for seventy-five percent of those whose occupation was in the alcohol industry and hospitality services: Buzek, Stosunki zawodowe i socyalne ludności w Galicyi według wyznania i narodowści na podstawie spisu ludności z dnia 31 grudnia 1900 r., 20–1.
44 Pylypovych, ed., Dukh i revnist’, 65–6.
45 Kapp, Ungleiche Entwicklung in Zentraleeuropa, 275–6.
46 Polonsky, The Jews in Poland and Russia, v.1, 255.
47 Turii, ed. Holovna Rus’ka Rada, 1848–1851. Protokoly zasidan’ i knyha korespondentsii, 63.
48 Himka, “Ukrainian-Jewish Antagonism in the Galician Countryside during the Late Nineteenth Century,” 131–2.
49 Studyns’kyi, Korespondentsiia, 221.
50 [Treshchakovskyi], “Hospodarstvo sel’ske,” Zoria Halytska, ch. 15, January 19, 1849, 31.
51 Turia, “Umistka. Podiakovanie,” Zoria Halytska, ch. 23, March 23, 1849, 140.
52 Ivan .. z za Hosheva, “Slava narodovy ruskomu v Halychchyni; chest tverezosty i vozderzhannosty!,” Zoria Halytska, ch. 87, October 31, 1849, 520.
53 Other examples are: I. N. [“Azh dushas’ raduie”], Zoria Halytska, ch. 92, November 17, 1849, 551–2; Ki, “V nediliu,” Zoria Halytska, ch. 95, November 28, 1849, 568–9.
54 [Treshchakovskyi], “I teper diiut sia dyvnii richy,” Zoria Halytska, ch. 100, December 15, 1849, 599–600.
55 Sława Bohu, 2.
56 Mokh, Sprava v seli Klekotyni.
57 Ibid, VII.
58 Ibid, X.
59 Ibid, 21.
60 Ibid, VII.
61 Ibid, 44.
62 Ibid, 26.
63 Ibid.
64 Ibid, 57.
65 Ibid, 27.
66 Ibid, 32.
67 Ibid, 33–7. Holyk, “Geneza i evoliutsiia uiavlen’ ta stereotypiv u kul’turi Skhidnoi Ievropy: Halychyna XIX-XX st.,” 149. It is difficult to tell, whether an average Galician peasant indeed no longer believed in blood libel. In all likelihood, for them, just like for most people in the Russian Empire, “it was entirely within the realm of perceived wisdom that Jews could commit the crime at any time and place.” Avrutin, The Velizh Affair: Blood Libel in a Russian Town, 159. The tales about Jews stealing Christian children for their blood were part of the Galician villagers’ lore and were told to children in the nineteenth century. At the same time, Rudolf Mokh as a graduate of the post-Josephinian theological seminary, apparently no longer believed these tales.
68 Mokh, Sprava v seli Klekotyni, 37–8.
69 Ibid, 77.
70 Stauter-Halstedt, “Jews as Middleman Minorities in Rural Poland,” 51–3.
71 Dynner, Yankel’s Tavern: Jews, Liquor, and Life in the Kingdom of Poland, 28.
72 Mokh, Sprava v seli Klekotyni, 103.
73 Ibid, 120–3.
74 Ibid, 143.
75 Ibid, 132.
76 Ibid, 78–80.
77 Ibid, 94.
78 Mokh, “Rozpuka arendarska (nad selianamy kotri do rozumu prykhodiat’),” Zoria Halytska, ch. 1, January 3, 1849, 6.
79 Ibid.
80 Turii, Holovna Rus’ka Rada, 73.
81 Ibid, 138.
82 Okhnych, “Kvatyrochka pekla dochka cherez Mykhaila Okhnycha, diaka v Dubni,” Zoria Halytska, ch. 77, September 26, 1849, 461.
83 Okhnych, “Kvatyrochka pekla dochka cherez Mykhaila Okhnycha, diaka v Dubni,” 462.
84 Okhnych, “Kvatyrochka pekla dochka cherez Mykhaila Okhnycha, diaka v Dubni,” Zoria Halytska, ch. 79, October 3, 1849, 475.
85 “Zhoda v korchmi,” Zoria Halytska, ch. 73, September 12, 1849, 440.
86 Turii, Holovna Rus’ka Rada, 69.
87 Zoria Halytska, ch. 19, March 7, 1849, 111.
88 Studyns’kyi, Korespondentsiia, 360–1.
89 T. H., “O potrebi utvorennia zakladov pozhychkovykh dlia selian,” Zoria Halytska, ch. 57, July 18, 1849, 339.
90 Turii, Holovna Rus’ka Rada, 70.
91 Ibid. , 120.
92 Ibid.
93 Turii, Holovna Rus’ka Rada, 56.
94 Studyns’kyi, Korespondentsiia, 140.
95 [Holovatsky], “Puteshestvie po Galitskoi i Vengerskoi Rusi (Pis’ma T. F. N. K drugu v L.),” 75.
96 Ibid.
97 Turii, “Hreko-katolyts’ka tserkva v suspil’no-politychnomu zhytti Halychyny, 1848–1867.”
98 [Lev Treshchakovskyi], “Vneseniie ch. Chlena Treshchakovskoho, o sredstvakh do sozdaniia domu narodnoho,” Zoria Halytska, ch. 54, July 7, 1849, 322.
99 Vynnychuk, ed. Antolohiia ukrains’koi gotychnoi prozy, t.1, 596–601.
100 “93toe zasidanie Holovnoi Ruskoi Rady dnia 17/29 Chervnia 1849,” Zoria Halytska ch. 53, July 4, 1849, 315.
101 Turii, Holovna Rus’ka Rada, 126–7.
102 Friedman, Die Galizischen Juden im Kampfe um Ihre Gleichberechtigung ( 1848–1868 ), 64.
103 N. N., “Iak to lehko mozh do maietku pryity,” Zoria Halytska, ch. 101, December 19, 1849, 608.
104 Toma Polians’kyi’s “Pastoral Letter” from 1859 can serve as an example. Pylypovych, Dukh i revnist’, 133.
105 [Hryhorii Savchyns’kyi], “Ivan Nakonechnyi,” Zoria Halytska ch. 10, February 3, 1849, 60; ch. 11, February 7, 1849, 65–7.
106 Khymka, “Istoriia, khrystyians’kyi svit i tradytsiina ukrains’ka kul’tura: sproba mental’noi arkheolohii,” 7–24.
107 Holovatskyi, ed., Narodnyia pesni Galitskoi i Ugorskoi Rusi, 23, 35–6, 97.
108 Studyns’kyi, Korespondentsiia, LX
109 Il’keveych, ed., Halyts’ki prypovidky i zahadky, 95.
110 Ibid, 91.
111 Ibid, 13.
112 Ibid, 24.
113 Ibid, 66.
114 Ibid, 34.
115 Ibid, 25.
116 Ibid, 33, 44, 63.
117 Ibid, 33.
118 Ibid, 52.
119 Ibid, 114.
120 [Symonov] Nomys, ed., Ukrains’ki prykazky, prysliv’ia i take ynshe, 80–1.
121 [Holovats’kyi, ed.], “Kazky za zhydiv (sobral Ia. Balagur),” 346–62.
122 Peasant and Cossack rebels of the eighteenth century. The best known episode of haidamaka rebellions is a massacre in the captured Uman during the 1768 uprising.
123 Holovats’kyi, ed., “Kazky za zhydiv (sobral Ia. Balagur),” 360.