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ABSTRACT
This article argues that the global liberal outlook of the major European maritime powers and the international framework of international organizations and regimes already in place made any strictly regional Common Shipping Policy, under the auspices of the European Community, superfluous. Alliances among Shipowners and associations ran across the member- and non-member divide, and were informed by global economic considerations such as the oil shock, competition from South East Asia and structural changes in the sector, rather than integrationist efforts. Instead, the Commission came to act as an interlocutor alongside a liberal alliance, with particular European aims within a global context. This alliance was an unlikely one, seeing Greek–Norwegian hopes in Britain as a possible guarantor of a liberal shipping regime within the enlarged Community in the early 1970s. In the end, the European response to the crisis and structural changes of the 1970s proved unsatisfactory, and only those who fully embraced the ‘new’ rules of the game (like Greece) reaped the benefits of the structural changes.
Acknowledgements
Many thanks to everyone who took part in the 1st HEIRS-RICHIE Conference, Capitalism, Crises and European Integration: from 1945 to the present, at the European University Institute, Florence in May 2016; to those who took part in the two workshops hosted by the Centre for Modern European Studies (CEMES) at the Saxo Institute, University of Copenhagen in 2017 and 2018; to the European Union Program at Princeton University and Program in Contemporary European Politics and Society, the PIIRS European Crises Group, the Liechtenstein Institute on Self-Determination, and the Seeger Center for Hellenic Studies, and The Paul Sarbanes ’54 Fund for Hellenism and Public Service, for organizing a very fruitful discussion at Princeton on 20 February 2019; to Anna Bredimas, Gelina Harlaftis, Federico Romero and Ioannis Theotokas for sharing their thoughts and ideas with us; to Alyson Price for language editing; and, last but not least, to the two anonymous reviewers. All mistakes and omission remain, of course, our own.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.
Bibliography
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Institute for Mediterranean Studies-FORTH Archives/Nikolaos I. Makarezos Archive (ANIM), Greece, Rethymno (IMS-FORTH)
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Notes
1. For an overview, see Milward, Politics and Economics, 1–37.
2. For example, see Kaiser and Varsori, European Union History. For a classic example of a maritime history approach to European integration, see Cafruny, Ruling the Waves, chap. 8, 202–31.
3. Ikonomou, Andry, and Byberg, eds., European Enlargement Across Rounds and Beyond Borders.
4. Among others, see Economides and Ker-Lindsay, “Pre-Accession Europeanization,” 1027–4; Schimmelfennig, “The Community Trap,” 47–80; and Schimmelfennig and Sedelmeier, eds., The Europeanization of Central and Eastern Europe.
5. On provincialization, see Patel, “Provincializing the European Communities”; and Chakrabarty, Provincializing Europe.
6. See n. 3.
7. On the general argument, see introduction to this special issue, and the article by Alexis Drach. See also Bussière, “Régionalisme Européen et Mondialisation,” 5–10.
8. Cafruny, Ruling the Waves, 1–2.
9. Ibid., 202–31.
10. Miller, Europe and the Maritime World, 1–19.
11. A typical narrative: Wilfried, Building Europe. For a critique of teleological narratives of EU history, see: Gilbert, “Narrating the Process.”
12. Griffiths, “EFTA and European Integration 1973–1994 – Vindication or Marginalisation?”; and Kaiser, “Challenge to the Community.”
13. Kaiser and Elvert, eds., European Union Enlargement.
14. In history: George, An Awkward Partner. In political science: Gstöhl, Reluctant Europeans.
15. Refers to spatial and functional differentiation, where member, as well as non-member states, participate to different degrees in the European institutions and policies. One of the first to properly define it: Stubb, “A Categorisation of Differentiated Integration.” For a broad exploration of the phenomenon: Leuffen, Rittberger, and Schimmelfennig, Differentiated Integration.
16. Naftika Chronika [hereon Naftika], 561/320 (15 October 1958).
17. Bredimas and Tzoannos, “In Search of a Common Shipping Policy for the E.C.,” 95–114.
18. Ikonomou, Europeans. For reports of direct Greek–Norwegian contacts during that period, see for example Naftika, 918/677 (1 September 1973).
19. Naftika, 899/658 (15 November 1972) and 902/661 (1 January 1973); Ikonomou, Europeans.
20. On Greece’s role at a later stage, see Tzoannos, European Integration and Merchant Shipping.
21. Ekberg, “Nordic Shipping” in Tenold, Iversen, and Lange, eds., Global Shipping in Small Nations.
22. Tenold, Iversen, and Lange, eds., Global Shipping in Small Nations, 2.
23. Theotokas and Harlaftis, Leadership in World Shipping, 59–60.
24. Tenold, Iversen, and Lange, Global Shipping in Small Nations, 2.
25. Dumoulin, “Bastion of Nationalisms.”
26. Patel and Schot, “Twisted Path to European Integration.”
27. Schaus, “Principles and Practical details of future Application of Treaty of Rome to Shipping Sector” in ‘Europe’ Common Market, 15 February 1967, 1.
28. Baker, “Travelling Fast to Get Nowhere,” 67–73.
29. European Commission (1996) “Towards a New Maritime Strategy, COM(96)81, 1C. http://aei.pitt.edu/6220/” (last accessed March 26, 2019).
30. Numbers/Quotes from: Norges Rederforbund Norges Rederforbund, 50 år, 50, 65, 67, 77–79; http://www.rederi.no/nrweb/cms.nsf/pages/historie (last visited April 31, 2018).
31. Neumann and Leira, Aktiv og avventende, 260.
32. The National Archives, UK, Kew (hereafter TNA), FCO-33/1267, 8 October 1970, Oslo, T. F. Brenchley, Norway: The Shipping Industry.
33. http://www.rederi.no/nrweb/cms.nsf/pages/historie (last visited May 31, 2018).
34. Norges Rederforbund, Norges Rederforbund, 50 år (1959), 88–9.
35. (Norwegian Shipping Association) NSA-7B-13, 8 September 1961, Notat. Nordisk direktørmøte, 15 September 1961.
36. NSA-7B-13, 21 August 1961, Centralstyret sak nr. 1. Norge og Roma-traktaten. Our Italics.
37. NSA-7B-12, 5 January 1961, Oslo, Notat. Mulighetene for et skipsfartssamarbeid innenfor 6-maktsunionen.
38. NSA-7B-13, 23 August 1961, Oslo, Centralstyremøte. Sak nr. 1. Norge og Roma-traktaten. Den aktuelle situasjon.
39. NSA-7B-8, 12 July 1961, Oslo, Vikøren, Notat. Skipsfartsamarbeid mellom CEE-landene.
40. NSA-7B-13-23 August 1961, Oslo – Centralstyremøte 23. August 1961. Sak nr. 1. Norge og Roma-traktaten. Den aktuelle situasjon.
41. NSA, Hovedstyremøte, 16 February 1967, Oslo [9 February 1967], Romatraktaten og norske skipsfartsinteresser.
42. TNA, FCO 9/697, 1967, Visit by Secretary of State.
43. See n. 41 .
44. See Tzamtzis, The Liberties and the Greeks.
45. Harlaftis, Greek Shipowners and Greece, 52–7.
46. Ibid., 40–52.
47. Theotokas and Harlaftis, Leadership in World Shipping, 59–60.
48. Harlaftis, Greek Shipowners and Greece, 24–39.
49. See Theotokas and Harlaftis, Leadership in World Shipping, 92–100.
50. Mavrogoradatos, Between Pityokamptes and Prokroustes, 139–47 (in Greek).
51. For a contemporary overview see Triantis, Common Market and Economic Development.
52. For the official text of the agreement, see Svolopoulos, Karamanlis, 545–59.
53. Naftika, 641/400 (15 February 1962).
54. Naftika, 555/314 (15 July 1958).
55. For example, see Naftika, 494/253 (1 January 1956), 852/611 (1 December 1970) and 975/734 (15 January 1976).
56. Naftika 641/400 (15 February 1962).
57. For an overview, see Varsori, “The EEC and Greece.” For a recent account from a business perspective, see Tsakas, “Europeanisation under Authoritarian Rule.”
58. Harlaftis, Greek Shipowners and Greece, 74–5.
59. Ibid., 79–89, 197.
60. To Vima (4 March 1972).
61. Norwegian National Archives (hereafter RA), Handelsdepartementet, Skipsfartsavdelingen (HS), D/Dd/U-V-Fellesmarkedet-29/2-Transportpolitikken-7-9-1973-1976, London 8 November 1973, Norges Ambassade, Johan C. Dahl, Skipsfarten og det utvidede EF.
62. RA-HS-D/Dd/U-V, Shipping and the Enlarged EEC, The Shipping Policy Division, DTI, Supplement to ‘Trade and Industry’, 8 November 1973.
63. Naftika, 832/591 (1 February 1970) and 869/628 (15 August 1971).
64. Naftika, 897/656 (15 October 1972), 899/658 (15 November 1972) and 902/661 (1 January 1973).
65. O Oikonomikos Tachydromos (12 April 1973).
66. Naftika, 866/625 (1 July 1971).
67. Naftika, 919/678 (15 September 1973) and 925/684 (15 December 1973).
68. Naftika, 904/663 (1 February 1973).
69. Iversen and Tenold, “The Two Regimes of Postwar Shipping,” 720–33.
70. Ekberg, “Nordic Shipping.”
71. Tenold, Iversen, and Lange, Global Shipping in Small Nations, 3.
72. Tamnes, Oljealder, 151.
73. RA-HS-D/Dd/U-V, Den blandede komité EF-Norge, Fra Ambassaden Brussel, 26 November 1973.
74. RA-HS-D/Dd/U-V, Notat. Norge, EF. Handelsavtalen. Skipsfart, Fra UD, Kjeld-Martin Fredriksen, 13 November 73.
75. RA-HS-D/Dd/U-V, Oslo, Norge/EF. Handelsavtalen. Den Blandede Komité. Skipsfart, Fra NSA, Eivinn Berg, 20 November 1973.
76. Tamnes, Oljealder, 182.
77. RA-HS, EF. Skipsfartspolitikk, Minister Solberg i samtale med avdelingssjef Vittorelli i Kommisjonens skipsfarts- og luftfartskontor. Fra UD, Jens Boyesen, Brussels, 12 November 1973.
78. Henrik Sornn-Friese, René Taudal Poulsen and Martin Jes Iversen “‘Knowing the Ropes’: Capability Reconfiguration and Restructuring of the Danish Shipping Industry” in Tenold, Iversen, and Lange, Global Shipping in Small Nations.
79. RA-HS, Den blandede komité EF-Norge. Fra Ambassaden Brussel, 26 November 1973.
80. See n. 77.
81. For example, on the case of Onassis’s business group, see Harlaftis, “The Onassis Global Shipping Business,” 241–71.
82. Ibid.
83. FRUS, 1958–1960, VI, 980-91 (545).
84. Nikolaos I. Makarezos Archive (hereafter ANIM), Institute for Mediterranean Studies-FORTH, Rethymno (hereafter IMS-FORTH), F235/A, A. G. Laimos, “Our Shipping and China”, undated; ANIM, IMS-FORTH, F477/A, A.I. Corantis (Ministry of Foreign Affairs) to N. Makarezos (Vice-Premier), Minutes of the Meetings of N. Makarezos with Li Xiannian (20 May and 21 May 1973) and Zhou Enlai (22 May 1973, 21 June 1973).
85. On this case, see the extensive coverage by British authorities in the files held at TNA, FO 371/144562 and FO 371/153013.
86. Kapetanaki–Sifaki, The Internationalization of the Capital in Greece, 179–85.
87. Argo, 20 (April 1967).
88. Greek Foreign Ministry Historical and Diplomatic Archives Service, Athens, London Embassy, 1974/8.7, Broumas to Ministry of Shipping, British tax measures in preparation – possible impact on Greek shipowners, 7 May 1974.
89. Harlaftis, Greek Shipowners and Greece, 102.
90. Tsakas, “21 April 1967.”
91. Theotokas and Harlaftis, Leadership in World Shipping, 94–5.
92. Kubisch Secretary of State, Greece re-emphasizes free market economy, need for private investment and incomes policy, 18 February 1977, DSCF, NARA, Record Group 59 (last visit through http://aad.archives.gov/aad on June 18, 2015).
93. Most famously in a Press conference, held by the Federation of Greek Industries (SEV), in which the main voice of Greek business accused the conservative government of socialist tendencies. For this episode, see O Oikonomikos Tachydromos (18 March 1976).
94. Naftika, 976/735 (1 February 1976) and 1052/811 (1 April 1979).
95. Naftika, 1053/812 (15 April 1976).
96. Theotokas and Harlaftis, Leadership in World Shipping, 27 (1.4).
97. Ibid., 27 (1.4) and 59 (3.1).
98. Tamnes, Oljelader, 189, 223; Tenold, “Risks and Rewards,” 229–30.
99. In 1974, inflation hit a record high (26.9%), the GDP shrank for the first time in decades (−6.4%) and the trade deficit remained high (−13.3%) after the 1973 record (14.7%). For the data, see Ministry of National Economy, The Greek Economy 1960–1997. For an overview, see Kazakos, Between the State and the Market.
100. Theotokas and Harlaftis, Leadership in World Shipping, 59–60 (3.1).
101. See n. 69 .
102. European Commission (1996) “Towards a New Maritime Strategy, COM(96)81, 11. http://aei.pitt.edu/6220/ (last visited March 26, 2019).
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Notes on contributors
Haakon A. Ikonomou
Haakon A. Ikonomou is a historian and Associate Professor at the University of Copenhagen. Ikonomou holds a Ph.D. from the European University Institute, Florence. He is co-director of the Rethinking European Integration research group and centre co-ordinator at the Centre for Modern European Studies (CEMES) at the Saxo Institute, University of Copenhagen. He is also review editor of Diplomatica: A Journal of Diplomacy and Society (Brill).
Christos Tsakas
Christos Tsakas is a historian and a Hannah Seeger Davis Postdoctoral Fellow 2018–19 at Princeton University. Christos holds a Ph.D. from the University of Crete, and before moving to Princeton, he held postdoctoral positions in Berlin and Florence. As an external researcher at the Institute for Mediterranean Studies/FORTH he initiated the IMS archives and oral history project, documenting post-war Greek industrialization.