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Research Article

Mussolini’s Four Would-be Assassins: Emergency Politics and the Consolidation of Fascist Power

Pages 1-18 | Published online: 08 Sep 2021
 

ABSTRACT

Between 4 November 1925 and 31 October 1926, Tito Zaniboni, Violet Gibson, Gino Lucetti, and Anteo Zamboni all tried and failed to kill Benito Mussolini. The significance of these attempts on Mussolini’s life and their relationship to the establishment of Fascism has gone overlooked as much scholarship focuses almost exclusively on the consequences of socialist deputy Giacomo Matteotti’s murder in June 1924. In this article, I analyse the impact that these assassination attempts had on Mussolini’s construction of the Fascist state. The article asks two main questions: What role did these assassins, and the state of emergency that their acts generated, play in the establishment of Fascist control? And how did they contribute to Mussolini’s cult status and his consecration as a ‘man of providence’? I argue that the failed assassination attempts were instrumental in allowing the Fascist regime to create a state of emergency and to capitalize on a fabricated demand for crisis management. These attempts fundamentally structured the conditions for the regime’s consolidation of power, including a vast expansion of laws that dismantled the liberal state and established the Fascist dictatorship.

RIASSUNTO

Tra il 4 novembre 1925 e il 31 ottobre 1926, Tito Zaniboni, Violet Gibson, Gino Lucetti e Anteo Zamboni tentarono tutti di uccidere Benito Mussolini, ma fallirono. Il significato di questi attentati alla vita di Mussolini e il loro rapporto con la creazione del fascismo è stato trascurato poiché la maggior parte degli studiosi si concentra quasi esclusivamente sulle conseguenze dell’omicidio del deputato socialista Giacomo Matteotti nel giugno 1924. In questo articolo, l’autrice analizza l’impatto che questi tentativi di assassinio ebbero sulla costruzione dello Stato fascista da parte di Mussolini. L’articolo pone due quesiti principali: quale ruolo hanno svolto questi assassini e lo stato di emergenza generato dai loro atti nell’instaurazione del controllo fascista? E come hanno contribuito alla creazione del culto di Mussolini e alla sua consacrazione come ‘uomo della provvidenza’? L’autrice sostiene che i falliti tentativi di omicidio furono strumentali nel consentire al regime fascista di creare uno stato di emergenza e di sfruttare una richiesta inventata di gestione delle crisi. Questi attentati crearono le fondamenta per il consolidamento del potere del regime, inclusa una vasta espansione delle leggi che smantellarono lo stato liberale e stabilirono la dittatura fascista.

Acknowledgments

This article was awarded the 2020 Sidney Tarrow Paper Prize of the Cornell Institute for European Studies. It was conceived in Aaron Sachs’s graduate research seminar at Cornell University. Aaron created a wonderful collaborative environment, and I benefitted enormously from his contribution, help, and encouragement, and that of the other seminar participants – Amanda Bosworth Shirnina, Jessica Price, Molly Reed, Rebecca Townsend, and Hoang Minh Vu. My gratitude also goes to my advisors, Enzo Traverso, Isabel V. Hull, and Claudia Verhoeven, for invaluable comments on some early drafts. I would like to thank the audiences of Cornell’s Graduate History Colloquium (14 September 2015), the Seventh Annual Graduate Student Conference of the Louisiana State University History Department (4–5 March 2016), and the Third Convention of the International Association for Comparative Fascist Studies ‘Fascism and the Radical Right’ (25–27 September 2020) for their very useful suggestions when I presented this article. My thanks as well go to Amanda Recupero and Allison Turner for excellent editing. Needless to say, I alone am responsible for any errors committed here.

Notes

1. The Weimar Constitution was never abrogated (Agamben Citation1998); the renewal of its suspension every four years implied a continual state of emergency.

2. Central Archives of the State in Rome [hereafter ACS], Casellario Politico Centrale, binder 5528, 1924–1943, Tito Zaniboni’s file, Daily Herald, November 13, 1925.

3. Ibid., ‘Razor slips, Duce cut on plot day’. The article says that Mussolini was told by phone that the Duke of Aosta was awaiting him at the Palazzo. Therefore, ‘the barber was requested to hasten his operations’. The Duce received then another call, ‘gave one of his characteristic jerks’ and ‘the barber’s razor slipped’, leaving Mussolini’s chin to bleed. There is visibly a great focus on Mussolini’s body. [All translations from the Italian are mine]

4. ACS, Casellario Politico Centrale, binder 5528, 1924–1943, Tito Zaniboni’s file, Il Popolo di Roma, June 30, 1926, ‘L’attentato del 4 novembre nella requisitoria del P.G.’ (The 4 November attempt in the prosecution’s closing speech): ‘La complicità del generale Capello largamente documentata’ (General Capello’s complicity extensively documented).

5. ACS, P.S. DIV. AA. GG. & RIS., special acts series (1898-1940), Zaniboni’s trial, general dossier, year 1926, file 38, binder 7, typed report concerning the Zaniboni-Capello trial, Rome, 15 January 1927, no author name: ‘L’On. Cassinelli ha avuto il preannunciato colloquio con S. E. il Generale Noseda, Pubblico Ministero del Tribunale Speciale. // Il colloquio sarebbe riuscito veramente proficuo, perché, in base ad esso ed agli altri colloqui che si terranno in seguito segretamente, si può, fin d’ora, affermare che nel processo Zaniboni-Capello non si avranno sorprese. // Il Generale Noseda e l’On. Cassinelli hanno discusso del processo in generale, delle liste testimoniali e della linea che sarà svolta durante il dibattimento.’

6. The sentence is printed in Tribunale Speciale per La Difesa Dello Stato. Decisioni Emesse Nel 1927 (Rome: Ufficio storico Stato maggiore dell’Esercito, 1980).

7. ‘la più perfetta delle pene. Essa infatti realizza al massimo grado la funzione intimidatrice e quella eliminativa della pena.’

8. The name OVRA is still an enigma. Guido Leto, second head of the OVRA, wrote in his book that the name wasn’t an acronym, but a sort of ‘psychological bluff’ and had explicitly been chosen by Mussolini to raise questions and a sense of terror. Cf. Leto Citation1952, 52.

9. ACS, Tribunale Speciale per la Difesa dello Stato, year 1927, file 01421, binder 184, anonymous letter to the Bologna police commissioner, 1 November 1926: ‘L’atto inconsulto avvenuto contro l’amato DUCE al quale Iddio ha voluto ancora una volta salvare per l’avvenire di una più grande Italia, non deve limitarsi al linciamento del giovane, ma con acume e intelligenza riuscire a conoscerne le trame onde assicurare tutti i rinnegati fuoriusciti alla Giustizia.’

10. ACS, Segreteria particolare del duce, carteggio riservato, binder 65, press release of the Agenzia Stefani, 31 October 1926, file ‘Attentato del 31 ottobre 1926, Bologna: Zamboni Anteo e famiglia: processo’: ‘Il Capo del Governo che non si è menomamente scomposto dopo aver fermato per qualche istante la automobile ha proseguito per la stazione. Quivi nel piazzale ha passato in rassegna il battaglione dei marinai e numerosi ufficiali della Milizia Nazionale Fascista accorsi per rendergli omaggio ed ha poi rivolto un discorso ad alcune centinaia di ufficiali dell’Esercito che si trovano a Bologna per gli esami. Quindi è salito in treno con la famiglia che lo attendeva dirigendosi a Forlì.’

11. ‘Il solenne “Te Deum”,’ in Il Resto del Carlino, 5 November 1926, cited in Dalla Casa, Attentato al Duce, 27–28: ‘Più fervida e più commossa – dice – si leva la voce di noi bolognesi che siamo stati testimoni da vicino e abbiamo più vivamente provato la stretta angosciosa di un momento fatale che avrebbe gettato nel lutto l’Italia e scosso dalle fondamenta l’ordine sociale.’

Additional information

Notes on contributors

Benedetta Luciana Sara Carnaghi

Benedetta Luciana Sara Carnaghi earned a Ph.D. in Modern European History at Cornell University and will be a visiting lecturer for Cornell’s John S. Knight Institute for Writing in the Disciplines in the fall of 2021. Her book manuscript in preparation is a comparative and transnational history of totalitarian surveillance spanning from the creation of the Fascist secret police to the end of World War II. Her most recent article – “Betraying Your Own: Jewish Spies and the Deportation of Jews during the Second World War” – was published in the November 2020 issue of S:I.M.O.N. Shoah: Intervention. Methods. Documentation. Her work was supported by several programs and institutions: at Cornell University, the Judith Reppy Institute for Peace and Conflict Studies, the Society for the Humanities, and the Cornell Institute for European Studies; elsewhere, the Chateaubriand Fellowship Program, the Lemmermann Foundation in Rome, Trinity College’s Cesare Barbieri Endowment, the Hoover Institution at Stanford University, the Vienna Wiesenthal Institute for Holocaust Studies, the Fondation pour la Mémoire de la Shoah in Paris, and the German Academic Exchange Service (D.A.A.D.).

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