Inter- and intra-cultural variation in learning-through-participation among Hadza and BaYaka forager children and adolescents from Tanzania and the Republic of Congo

Abstract

We examined cross-cultural variation in children’s learning-through-participation in economic work in two forager societies; the Hadza of Tanzania and the BaYaka of the Republic of Congo. We used observational data from 46 Hadza (41% female) and 65 BaYaka (48% female) children and adolescents between the ages of 3 and 18; interview data from 73 Hadza (49% female) and 52 BaYaka (56% female) adults; and ethnographic observations from both populations. Results showed that by providing tools, assigning chores, and foraging with children, Hadza and BaYaka adults provided opportunities for autonomous learning through facilitating participation. Furthermore, although both Hadza and BaYaka children foraged alongside adults when they could be of help, Hadza children were more likely than BaYaka children to forage independently, and BaYaka children were more likely than Hadza children to participate in domestic tasks. We argue that these strategies provided children with opportunities to learn while contributing economically.

Nous avons examiné les variations interculturelles dans l’apprentissage des enfants dans le contexte de leur participation à des travaux économiques dans deux sociétés de chasseurs-cueilleurs; les Hadza de Tanzanie et les BaYaka du Congo. Nous avons utilisé les données d’observation de 46 enfants et adolescents Hadza (41% femmes) et 65 BaYaka (48% femmes) âgés de 3 à 18 ans, celles d’interviews de 73 adultes Hadza (49% femmes) et de 52 adultes BaYaka (56% femmes), ainsi que des observations ethnographiques sur ces deux groupes. Les résultats montrent qu’en leur fournissant des outils, en leur assignant des tâches et en chassant et en cueillant avec les enfants, les adultes Hadza et BaYaka leur offrent des possibilités d’apprentissage autonome tout en facilitant leur participation. En outre, alors que les enfants Hadza et BaYaka chassent et cueillent aux côtés des adultes quand ils peuvent, les enfants Hadza sont plus susceptibles que les enfants BaYaka de recourir à la chasse et à la cueillette. Ces derniers sont aussi plus susceptibles que les enfants Hadza de participer aux tâches domestiques. Nous en concluons que ces stratégies fournissent aux enfants des opportunités d’apprentissage tout en contribuant, parallèlement, aux ressources économiques de leur groupe.

Keywords:

• learning-through-participation
• hunter-gatherers
• child development
• cross-cultural psychology

Acknowledgements

Funding for data collection and writing was provided to S.L.L. by the Cambridge International Trust, the SSHRC Doctoral Scholarship (Award no. 752-2016-0555), the Ruggles- Gates Fund for Anthropological Scholarship of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, the Smuts Memorial Fund, the Worts Travelling Grant, and the Cambridge School of Biological Sciences Fieldwork Fund. We would like to thank the BaYaka and Hadza families who agreed to partici- pate in this research. From Congo, we would like to thank Prof. Clobite Bouka-Biona from IRSEN, who facilitated the acquisi- tion of research permits and infrastructure, Dzabatou Moise, who served as a community liaison, and our field assistants, Mekouno Paul and Koutain Mindoula. From Tanzania, we would like to thank Prof. Audax Z. Mabulla from the University of Dar es Salaam, who facilitated the acquisition of research permits and infrastructure, and our field assistant, Shani Msafir Sigwazi.

ORCID

Michael E. Lamb http://orcid.org/0000-0002-6792-3526