Introduction

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Notes

1 It is now widely agreed that Anna of Denmark should be referred to as such, given that she spelled her name as Anna on a variety of letters and other documents. However, the titles of various of her portraits still give her name as Anne, and so this form is used when referring to those works of art.

2 This issue grew out of a workshop ‘Royal Representation in the Danish-British Sphere’ which took place at the National Portrait Gallery (NPG) in May 2018 and which was generously funded by the Carlsberg Foundation as part of the Transcultural Portrætter project, led by Frederiksborg Museum of National History in Denmark and the National Portrait Gallery, London, between 2016 and 2018. I would like to thank the workshop speakers: Jill Harrison, Jonathan Spangler, Michael Pearce, Catriona Murray, Julie Farguson, Stefan Pajung, Charlotte Christensen and Kate Strasdin; all the invited attendees including members of the Anglo-Danish Society; Pardaad Chamsaz, Curator of Germanic Collections at the British Library; Catharine MacLeod and Charlotte Bolland at the NPG; and not least Peter Funnell, formerly Head of Research at the National Portrait Gallery and Mette Skougaard, Director, and Thomas Lyngby, Head of Research, at Frederiksborg Museum of National History, for their unstinting support. Thanks also to Jonathan Spangler for his support for the idea of a dedicated issue of the journal, and his help with editing the articles.

3 For consortship as an engine of cultural transfer see: Joanna Marschner with David Bindman and Lisa L. Ford (eds), Enlightened Princesses: Caroline, Augusta, Charlotte, and the Shaping of the Modern World (New Haven, 2017); Jutta Kappel und Claudia Brink (eds), Mit Fortuna übers Meer: Sachsen und Dänemark, Ehen und Allianzen im Spiegel der Kunst (1548–1709) (Berlin, 2009); Clarissa Campbell Orr (ed.), Queenship in Britain 1660–1837. Royal Patronage, Court Culture and Dynastic Politics (Manchester, 2002); and also Clarissa Campbell Orr (ed.), Queenship in Europe 1660–1815. The Role of the Consort (Cambridge, 2004).

4 Helen Watanabe-O’Kelly and Adam Morton (eds), Queens Consort, Cultural Transfer and European Politics, c.1500–1800 (London and New York, 2017); Jill Bepler and Svante Norrhem (eds). Telling Objects: Contextualizing the Role of the Consort in Early Modern Europe (Wiesbaden, 2018).

5 This episode is dealt with briefly below. Literature on Louisa is extraordinarily limited. See her entry in Svend Cedergreen Bech (ed.), Dansk Biografisk Leksikon, 3rd edition (Copenhagen, 1979-84), pp. 136-7. By contrast, literature on Caroline Matilda's short life is extensive. The most recent includes Michael Bregnsbo, Patrik Winton and Pasi Ihalainen (eds), Scandinavia in the Age of Revolution: Nordic Political Cultures, 1740–1820 (London and New York, 2016); Stella Tillyard, A Royal Affair: George III and his Troublesome Siblings (London, 2006); Michael Bregnsbo, ‘Danish Absolutism and Queenship: Louisa, Caroline Matilda and Juliane Maria’, in Clarissa Campbell Orr (ed.), Queenship in Europe 1660–1815: The Role of the Consort (Cambridge, 2004); H. Arnold Barton, Scandinavia in the Revolutionary Era, 1760–1815 (Minneapolis, 1986); Harald Jørgensen, The Unfortunate Queen Caroline Mathilde's Last Days (Copenhagen, 1989); W.F. Reddaway, ‘King Christian VII’, English Historical Review 31 (1916), pp. 59-84. In Danish, see Michael Bregnsbo, Caroline Mathilde: Magt og Skæbne: en Biografi (Copenhagen, 2007); Svend Cedergreen Bech, Struensee og hans Tid (Viborg, 1989). See also Juliane Schmieglitz-Otten und Norbert Steinau (eds), Caroline Mathilde 1751–1775: von Kopenhagen nach Celle: das kurze Leben einer Königin: Begleitpublikation aus Anlass einer Ausstellung des Bomann-Museums Celle zum 25. Geburtstag der dänischen Königin Caroline Mathilde (Celle, 2001).

6 See this term as coined by Jonathan Spangler in his ‘Les Princes étrangers: Truly Princes? Truly Foreign? Typologies of Princely Status, Trans-Nationalism and Identity in Early Modern France’, in Martin Wrede and Laurent Bourquin (eds), Adel und Nation in der Neuzeit: Hierarchie, Egalität und Loyalität 16.–20. Jahrhundert (Ostfildern, 2017), pp. 117-141, p. 119. See also his ‘Aulic Spaces Transplanted: The Design and Layout of a Franco-Burgundian Court in a Scottish palace’, The Court Historian 14 (2009), pp. 49-62.

7 For a truly global comparison, see Jeroen Duindam, Tülay Artan and Metin Kunt (eds), Royal Courts in Dynastic States and Empires (Leiden, 2011).

8 Marschner, Enlightened Princesses; Mara Wade, ‘Dynasty at Work: Danish Cultural Exchange with England and Germany at the Time of the Palatine Wedding’, in Sara Smart and Mara Wade (eds), The Palatine Wedding of 1613, Context, Celebration and Consequence of an Anglo-German Alliance (Wiesbaden, 2013); Mara Wade (ed.), Daphnis: Pomp, Power, and Politics: Essays on German and Scandinavian Court Culture and Their Contexts (Amsterdam, 2003).

9 The importance of the Low Countries’ position at the artistic, intellectual and geographical centre of this triangular-shaped network cannot be underestimated. Networks of Dutch and Flemish artists served and travelled between courts in Denmark, Britain and Germany. There are too many instances to cite here but representative examples might include the Van der Doordt and De Passe families. See Ilya M. Veldman, Crispijn de Passe and his Progeny (1574–1670): A Century of Print Production (Rotterdam, 2001); Heiner Borgrefe and Thomas Fusenig, ‘Pieter Isaacsz, Jacob van der Doordt, Hans Rottenhammer and their Artistic Networks,’ in Michael Andersen, Birgitte Bøggild Johannsen and Hugo Johannsen (eds), Reframing the Danish Renaissance: Problems and Prospects in a European Perspective: Papers from an International Conference in Copenhagen, 28 September-1 October 2006 (Copenhagen, 2011), pp. 301-312; Arne Spohr, ‘How Chances it They Travel?’ Englische Musiker in Dänemark und Norddeutschland, 1579–1630 (Wiesbaden, 2009).

10 Horst Bredekamp, Thomas Hobbes. Der Leviathan: das Urbild des modernen Staates und seine Gegenbilder, 1651–2001 (Berlin, 2006).

11 Peter Burke, ‘State-Making, King-Making and Image-Making from Renaissance to Baroque: Scandinavia in a European Context’, Scandinavian Journal of History 22 (1997), pp. 1-8.

12 Catriona Murray, Imaging Stuart Family Politics: Dynastic Crisis and Continuity (London and New York, 2017).

13 Also on this subject see Philip Mansel, Dressed to Rule: Royal and Court Costume from Louis XIV to Elizabeth II (New Haven, 2005) and Aileen Ribeiro, Fashion and Fiction. Dress in Art and Literature in Stuart England (New Haven, 2005).

14 O’Kelly and Morton, Queens Consort, Cultural Transfer and European Politics, p. 241.

15 Jessica Munns and Penny Richards (eds), The Clothes that Wear Us: Essays on Dressing and Transgressing in Eighteenth-Century Culture (London, 1999); Barbara Burman and Carole Turbin (eds), Material Strategies: Dress, and Gender in Historical Perspective (London, 2003).

16 For histories of Denmark within the wider European context see Thomas Munck, Seventeenth-Century Europe: State, Conflict, and the Social Order in Europe, 1598–1700 (Basingstoke, 2005); D. G Kirby, Northern Europe in the Early Modern Period: the Baltic world 1492–1772 (London, 1990), and The Baltic World 1772–1993: Europe's Northern Periphery in an Age of Change (London, 1995). For diplomatic relations between Denmark and Scotland see Thomas Riis, Should Auld Acquaintance be Forgot: Scottish-Danish Relations c.1450–1707 (Odense, 1988). There is a lively scholarship on the political and cultural history of the Danish court taking place within Scandinavia, but this remains largely inaccessible to an Anglophone readership, though happily some works have been re-published in English in the Scandinavian Journal of History, under the auspices of The Historical Associations of Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway and Sweden.

17 Paul Lockhart's indispensable works on the early modern Danish court includes: Denmark, 1513–1660: the Rise and Decline of a Renaissance Monarchy (Oxford, 2007); Frederik II and the Protestant Cause : Denmark's Role in the Wars of Religion, 1559–1596 (Leiden, 2004); Denmark in the Thirty Years’ War, 1618–1648: King Christian IV and the decline of the Oldenburg State (Selinsgrove, 1996). See also Steve Murdoch, Britain, Denmark-Norway and the House of Stuart 1603–1660 (East Linton, 2003); Juliette Roding and Lex Heerma van Voss (eds), The North Sea and Culture (1550–1800) (Hilversum, 1997); Andersen, Bøggild Johannsen and Johannsen (eds), Reframing the Danish Renaissance.

18 See Andrew Thompson, Britain, Hanover and the Protestant Interest, 1688–1756 (Woodbridge, 2006).

19 Norway was united with Sweden in 1814 and achieved independent status in 1905.

20 Bridget Heal, ‘Introduction: Art and Religious Reform in Early Modern Europe’, Art History 40 (2017), pp. 246-55, p. 248.

21 Heiko Laß, Castle Chapel Celle (Celle, n.d.).

22 Ulrik Reindel, ‘The King Tapestries at Kronborg Castle. A “Mirror for Princes” for a Protestant Prince’, in Philippe Bordes and Pascal-François Bertrand (eds), Portrait et Tapisserie/Portrait and Tapestry (Turnhout, 2015), pp. 71-87. See also Vibeke Woldbye, European Tapestries, 15th–20th century (Copenhagen, 2006).

23 The first publication of the tapestries’ verses was in Johan Francken, Chronica; Das ist: Beschreibung aller Könige in Dennemarcken / von dem Ersten Könige DAN: (welcher zur zeit des Königs Davidis regieret) biß auff Christianum den Vierdten dieses Namens ißt Regierenden und an der Zahl der hunderste, illustrated with woodcuts and published at Magdeburg, 1597. Later the engraver Albert Haelwegh published Regum Daniæ Icones with engraved portraits at Hafniæ [Copenhagen], in 1648. Elizabeth Cleland, ‘1. Throne Baldachin’, in Thomas Campbell (ed.), Tapestry in the Baroque: Threads of Splendour (New Haven, 2007), pp. 33-5, p. 33.

24 Susan Dunn-Hensley, Anna of Denmark and Henrietta Maria: Virgins, Witches and Catholic Queens (Basingstoke, 2017); Jemma Field, ‘Anna of Denmark: A Late Portrait by Paul van Somer’, The British Art Journal 18 (2017), pp. 50-6; the same, ‘The Wardrobe Goods of Anna of Denmark’, Costume 51 (2017) https://doi.org/10.3366/cost.2017.0003; Sidia Fiorato, ‘Anna of Denmark and the Performance of the Queen Consort's Sovereignty’, in Sidia Fiorato and John Drakakis (eds), Performing the Renaissance Body: Essays on Drama, Law and Representation (Berlin, 2016); Wendy Hitchmough, ‘“Setting” the Stuart Court: Placing Portraits in the “Performance” of Anglo Spanish Negotiations’, Journal of the History of Collections (2019) https://doi.org/10.1093/jhc/fhz004; the same, ‘Queenship and the Currency of Arts Patronage as Propaganda at the Early Stuart Court’, in Caroline Dunn and Elizabeth Carney (eds), Royal Women and Dynastic Loyalty. Queenship and Power (Basingstoke, 2018), pp. 139-49; Anna Whitelock, ‘Reconsidering the Political Role of Anna of Denmark’, in H. Matheson-Pollock, J. Paul and C. Fletcher (eds), Queenship and Counsel in Early Modern Europe (Basingstoke, 2018), pp. 237-58.

25 Perhaps the most influential assessment is Clare McManus, Women on the Renaissance Stage: Anna of Denmark and Female Masquing in the Stuart Court (1590–1619) (Manchester, 2002).

26 Clarissa Campbell Orr, ‘Life and Culture at Court in England and Hanover: An Anglo-German Comparison’, in Frank Lothar-Kroll and Martin Munke (eds), Hannover — Coburg-Gotha — Windsor (Berlin, 2017).

27 Paul Lockhart's work here is especially significant. See note 18. See also the special issue of Daphnis 32 (2003): Pomp, Power and Politics: Essays Commemorating the 400th Anniversary of the Coronation of King Christian IV of Denmark. Edited by Mara Wade.

28 Steffen Heiberg (ed.), Christian IV and Europe: the 19^th Art Exhibition of the Council of Europe, Denmark 1988 (Copenhagen, 1988).

29 Discussed most recently in Jochen Luckhardt, ‘Herzog Heinrich Julius und seine Familie im Porträt von Jacob van Doordt: Miniaturen und Bildnisse ganzer Figur in der Europäischen Malerei zu Beginn der 17. Jahrhunderts’, in Werner Arnold, Brage Bei der Wieden und Ulrike Gleixner (eds), Herzog Heinrich Julius zu Braunschweig und Lüneburg (1564–1613): Politiker und Gelehrter mit europäischem Profil: Beiträge des Internationalen Symposions, Wolfenbüttel, 6.-9.10.2013 (Braunschweig, 2016), pp. 129-142.

30 Rigsarkivet, Copenhagen, Tyske Kancelli, Udenrigske Afdeling England [https://www.sa.dk/ao-soegesider/da/billedviser?epid=11794754#261246,48867201]: ‘ … und ubersenden Ihr hirbeineben unser Conterfaitt, mitt freundt und Schwesterlicher bitte E. L. dasselben unß zugefallen tragen, und unser derbey Brüderlich gedencken wöllen Wir wir hinwiederumb deroselben Conterfaitt nicht allein an unser Kleidern, sondern vielmehr in sartiger gedachtnuß Schwesterlich tragen.’ Any errors in transcription and translation are my own.

31 Mara Wade, ‘Dynasty at Work’, The Palatine Wedding of 1613, p. 509.

32 I would like to thank Eva-Lena Karlsson for discussing this portrait and sharing information with me.

33 He remains rather understudied, barring Julie Farguson's ‘Dynastic Politics, International Protestantism and Royal Rebellion: Prince George of Denmark and the Glorious Revolution’, English Historical Review 131 (2016), pp. 540-69. Her book on George is forthcoming with Boydell and Brewer this year.

34 ‘Als Ihro letzt regierende Kayserliche Majestät, als König in Spanien, anno 1704, bey der Königin Anna in Engelland einsprach, so stunde die Königin ein paar Schritte von der obern Stuffe, Dero der König so gleich die Juppe ergriff, und solche zu küssen Mine machte. Allein die Königin hub ihn auf, und embrassirte selbige unter Gebung eines Kusses. Der König führte selbige hinauf bey der Hand, Ihro zur lincken Seite gehend, durch drey Zimmer zurück, in ihr Bett=Gemach, von dar er sich nach einem kurzen Aufenthalt, unter Begleitung des Printz Georgens, in sein eigen Apartement begab.’ Julio Bernhard von Rohr, Einleitung zur Ceremoniel-Wissenschaft der großen Herren, (Joh. Andreas Rüdiger, 1729), p. 365. All errors in translation are my own.

35 Bregnsbo, Winton and Ihalainen (eds), Scandinavia in the Age of Revolution, p. 58.

36 Ellen Krefting, Aina Nøding and Mona Ringvej (eds), Eighteenth-Century Periodicals as Agents of Change: Perspectives on Northern Enlightenment (Leiden, 2015); Klaus Bohnen and Sven-Aage Jørgensen (eds), Zentren der Aufklärung. 4, Der dänische Gesamtstaat: Kopenhagen, Kiel, Altona (Heidelberg, 1992); Kersten Krüger, ‘Absolutismus in Dänemark: ein Modell für Begriffsbildung und Typologie’, Zeitschrift der Gesellschaft für Schleswig-Holsteinische Geschichte 104 (1979), pp. 171-206.

37 Charlotte Christensen, Drømmebilleder: Carl Gustaf Pilos Portrætkunst (Copenhagen, 2016).

38 Michael Bregnsbo, ‘Danish Absolutism and Queenship: Louisa, Caroline Matilda and Juliane Maria’, in Clarissa Campbell-Orr (ed.), Queenship in Europe 1660–1815: The Role of the Consort (Cambridge, 2004), p. 347.

39 Johan Schioldann, ‘Struensee's Memoir on the Situation of the King (1772): Christian VII of Denmark’, History of Psychiatry 24 (2013), pp. 227-47.

40 See note 5.

41 William Howard Russell with Robert Dudley, A Memorial of the Marriage of H. R. H. Albert Edward Prince of Wales and H. R. H. Alexandra, Princess of Denmark (London, 1864).

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Sara Ayres

Sara Ayres From 2016 to 2018 Dr Sara Ayres was the Queen Margarete II Distinguished Post-Doctoral Fellow in Danish-British Portraiture at the National Portrait Gallery, London, funded by the Carlsberg Foundation. She is currently working on Prince George of Denmark's Grand Tour of 1669.