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ABSTRACT
This article seeks to explore the colonial encounters with Pashtuns of the erstwhile North West Frontier Province (now renamed as Khyber Pakhtunkhwa), Pakistan and their mythical Orientalist constructions in the colonial historical and ethnographic accounts of the late 18th, 19th, and 20th centuries. The recurring colonial images and the transformation of colonial discourses and post-colonial effects on Pashtun identity and society are analyzed in this research article. Noticeably, it looks into the paradigm shift from the anthropocentric views of Pashtuns to Orientalized and Europocentric ideas by applying Edward Said’s influential thesis of ‘Orientalism’ and integrating the work of other post-colonial thinkers. This research article draws upon archival, anthropological, ethnographic field data to supplement the textual analysis and challenge the Orientalist and colonial representation of Pashtuns. The ethnographic field data were gathered through in-depth interviews with various Pashtun intellectuals, poets, writers, and authors from various institutions in Peshawar and Charsadda. However, this research article demonstrates that there are colonial biases and Eurocentric constructions of Pashtuns in the colonial accounts and texts. The colonial biassed representations of Pashtuns are transformed into postcolonial discourses. Pashtuns and Pashtun society are still uncritically analyzed through colonial lenses and spectacles.
Acknowledgments
The authors are extremely grateful to Muhammad Adil, a student of the M.A. Pashto Department at Islamia College University, Peshawar, who helped in conducting interviews for this study.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).
List of Persons Interviewed
It must be noted that 24 in-depth interviews were conducted for this study but here we have only produced the list of persons quoted in this research paper.
Mr Shahab Aziz. Pashto Lecturer. The Govt Degree College Tangi. Charsadda, Pakistan. 22 January 2017. Interviewed by Author in Pashto language.
Mr Javaid Khalil. Former Professsor, Department of Pashto. The University of Peshawar. Peshawar, Pakistan. 13 January 2017. Interviewed by Author in Pashto language.
Mr Faisal Faran. PhD Scholar, Department of Pashto. The University of Peshawar. Peshawar, Pakistan. 12 January 2017. Interviewed by Author in Pashto language.
Mr Syed Yasir Ali. PhD Scholar, Department of Pashto. The University of Peshawar. Peshawar, Pakistan. 9 January 2017. Interviewed by Author in Pashto language.
Mr Noor-ul-Amin Yousafzai. Visiting Faculty, Department of Pashto. The University of Peshawar and Islamia College Univeristy. Peshawar, Pakistan. 4 January 2017. Interviewed by Author in Pashto language.
Mr Zubair Hassrat. Director, Pakhtunkhwa Study Center. The Bacha Khan University. Charsadda, Pakistan. 20 January 2017. Interviewed by Author in Pashto language.
Mr Dervaish Apriday. Lecturer, Department of Gender Studies. The University of Peshawar. Peshawar, Pakistan. 23 January 2017. Interviewed by Author in Pashto language.
Mr Hayat Roghani. Author and Poet. Charsadda, Pakistan. 21 January 2017. Interviewed by Author in Pashto language.
Mr Abdul Wahid. HOD, Department of Pashto. The University of Peshawar. Peshawar, Pakistan. 23 January 2017. Interviewed by Author in Pashto language.
Mr Syed Sabir Shah Sabir. Author and Poet. Peshawar, Pakistan. 12 January 2017. Interviewed by Author in Pashto language.
Mr. Sher Zaman Seemab. Assistant Professor, Pashto Academy. The University of Peshawar. Peshawar, Pakistan. 16 January 2017. Interviewed by Author in Pashto language.
Mr Badr-ul-Hakim. Assistant Professor, Pakhtunkhwa Study Center. The Bacha Khan University. Charsadda, Pakistan. 17 January 2017. Interviewed by Author in Pashto language.
Mr Tariq Khan. PhD Scholar, Department of Pashto, University of Peshawar. Peshawar Pakistan. 16 January 2017. Interviewed by Author in Pashto language.
Mr Nasrullah Jan Wazir. Director, Pashto Academy. The University of Peshawar. Peshawar Pakistan. 11 January 2017. Interviewed by Author in Pashto language.
Notes
1. Now Renamed as Khyber Pakhtunkhwa on 15 April 2010through 18th Amendment.
2. Banerjee, The Pathan Unarmed Opposition; Kipling, The Jungle Book.
3. Ahmed, ‘An Aspect of the Colonial Encounter.’
4. Ibid.
5. Khan, ‘Pakhtun Ethnic Nationalism’; Bayly, ‘The “Re-turn” to Empire in IR,’ and ‘Imperial Ontological (In)security.’
6. Khan, ‘Pakhtun Ethnic Nationalism.’
7. Bayly, ‘The “Re-turn” to Empire in IR,’ and ‘Imperial Ontological (In)security.’
8. Ibid.
9. Said, Orientalism.
10. Reed, ‘Neocolonialism in Cold War Afghanistan.’
11. Rothkopf, ‘Biden Insiders’; Khattak, ‘Is The Violent Endgame … ’
12. See Rolfe, ‘Deconstruction in a nutshell.’
13. Monsutti, ‘Anthropologizing Afghanistan.’
14. Fetterman, Ethnography Step-by-Step.
15. Fife, Doing Fieldwork.
16. Shah, Z. A. ‘Orientalist Constructions.’
17. Pashto Academy was established in 1955, as a research and publication institution. The Pashto department was later founded in the building of Pashto Academy under its patronage in 1961 as a post-graduate teaching department, which is now working as a separate department.
18. Mushaira is a literary gathering of poets, where poets recite their poems and verses.
19. Khan and Khan, ‘The Oriental issues.’
20. Said, Orientalism, 1.
21. Ibid., 2.
22. Taj, Taliban and Anti-Taliban.
23. Banerjee, The Pathan Unarmed Opposition; Bayly, ‘The “Re-turn” to Empire in IR,’ and ‘Imperial Ontological (In)security.’; Khan, ‘Pakhtun Ethnic Nationalism’; Titus, ‘Honor the Baloch.’
24. Barnard, History and Theory in Anthropology; Moore, Visions Of Culture.
25. See above 9.
26. Rahman, Language and Politics in Pakistan.
27. Rahman, Language and Politics in Pakistan; Khalil, Pukhto Awo Mustashriqeen.
28. Khalil, Pukhto Awo Mustashriqeen.
29. Pashto Language literary Scholars (linguists) I have met and interviewed during my fieldwork, which I have presented in the following sections. I have also personally interviewed the author of this book, Prof. Dr. Javaid Khalil.
30. Munshi is roughly understood or translated as ‘clerk’ or an aide to government officers, local Khans, or landlord who deal with the documental affairs.
31. See above 20., 16.
32. Ibid., 22.
33. See also Introduction.
34. Elphinstone, An Account of the Kingdom of Cabul.
35. See above 28.
36. George Ross Keppel was born in England but his Father was a Swedish, and at a very young age he moved to England. Roos Kepel also served as a Political agent for Kurram and Khyber Agency and was Chief Commissioner of the province in 1908.
37. He has spent much of his life (23 years) among the Khattak Pashtuns. That is why he authored a book titled ‘Life among the Pathans (Khattaks).’
38. Ibid.
39. Loventhal was an American missionary; he had translated Bible into Pashto language and published an article titled ‘Is Pashto a Semitic language’ in 1860.
40. The title of the book is in Pashto: ‘spogmia Krrang waha Raheeja’ (sound the bells, O moon, arise and shine!) is a collection of 100 Pashto proverbs and tappas” (Enevoldsen, Citation2000). Jens Enevoldsen (1922–1921) was a Norwegian theologian and scholar. He was famous by the nom de guerre Ghulam Essa in Pukhtunkhwa. In 1958 when he first came to Peshawar, he started to teach European history in department of History in University of Peshawar. Later, he had also started Pashto literature van service to Pashtuns from Pashto academy (Khalil, Citation2011).
41. Ibid.
42. Rahman, Language and Politics in Pakistan, 25.
43. Ibid.
44. Bellow, A General Report, i.
45. See Schäbler, ‘Civilizing Others,’ 1.
46. Pennell, Among the Wild Tribes, vi–vii.
47. Pennell, Among the Wild Tribes, 17.
48. Shafique, British Historiography.
49. Interview, 22 January 2017.
50. Interview, 13 January 2017.
51. Interview, 12 January 2017.
52. Interview, 9 January 2017.
53. A localized term used for British.
54. Interview, 4 January 2017.
55. ‘CID Situation Report.’ 1947. Peshawar. File 207. Directorate of Archives & Libraries, Government of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa.
56. Bacha Khan University Charsadda
57. Interview, 20 January 2017.
58. Interview, 23 January 2017.
59. (Williamson, Citation1933), 1.
60. Ibid, 19.
61. Williamson, ‘A Note On Terrorism.’
62. Interview, 21 January 2017.
63. Mr Abdul Wahid. HOD, Department of Pashto. The University of Peshawar. Peshawar, Pakistan. 23 January 2017. Interviewed by Author in Pashto language.
64. See above 51. 2017.
65. Interview, 16 January 2017.
66. Interview, 17 January 2017.
67. See above 65. 2017.
68. Mr Badr-ul-Hakim. Assistant Professor, Pakhtunkhwa Study Center. The Bacha Khan University. Charsadda, Pakistan. 17 January 2017. Interviewed by Author in Pashto language
69. See above 65. 2017.
70. British Report 1933, 21.
71. See above 62. 2017.
72. Mr Nasrullah Jan Wazir. Director, Pashto Academy. The University of Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan. 11 January 2017. Interviewed by Author in Pashto language
73. Beharreelall, ‘Notes On Peshawar.’
Additional information
Notes on contributors
Zahid Ali Shah
Zahid Ali Shah is a PhD Candidate at the Department of Anthropology, Quaid-i-Azam University Islamabad, researches Pakhtun resistance, identity, colonial constructions and postcolonial representations.
Ikram Badshah
Ikram Badshah is Assistant Professor Department of Anthropology, Quaid-i-Azam University Islamabad. His research interests include Pakhtun culture, encountering militancy through Pashto poetry, proverbs and gender, content analysis of textbooks and position of Pakistani women, identity politics and students’ politics.
Usman Khan
Usman Khan is Research Fellow at the Pakistan Study Center North Minzu University, Ningxia, China. He also teaches Anthropology at Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad, Pakistan. His research area covers colonial and postcolonial states, social movements, borderland regions, development, and Pashtuns of Pakistan.
Jianfu Ma
Jianfu Ma is a Professor in Cultural and Social Anthropology at the School of Ethnology and Sociology, North Minzu University of China. He also serves as a Dean of the Pakistan Studies Center. His research interests include anthropology of food, political anthropology, and geopolitics among South Asian Countries, particularly Pakistan and Afghanistan.