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ABSTRACT
Racism in football is a long-standing phenomenon that has changed shape and form over time. From individual fans either throwing bananas or making monkey-like sounds to organized neo-Nazi fans celebrating on the terraces, the superiority of all things white, non-white football players has long suffered abuse in football. Overlooked by football’s governing bodies for several decades, racism in football was only highlighted in the early 1990s, when the first anti-racism organizations devoted to tackling racist abuse in sport came to life. Thirty years later, the criminal offence that is racism in football not only is still present, but it has also invaded yet another domain of social life–the digital world. The present article, first, addresses notions pertaining to racism in football, then, considers the criminological aspects of digital racisms and, finally, discusses the impact of digital racisms on football studies.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).
Notes
1. Miles, Racism after ‘Race’ Relations, 28.
2. Malik, The Meaning of Race, 101.
3. Miles, Racism after ‘Race’ Relations, 2–3.
4. Solomos, Race and Racism in Britain, 195.
5. Solomos and Back, Racism and Society, 105.
6. Bonnett, Anti-Racism, 4.
7. Ibid., 10. Emphasis in original.
8. Solomos and Back, Racism and Society, 1.
9. Miles, Racism after ‘Race’ Relations, 42.
10. Gilroy, There Ain’t No Black in the Union Jack, 22.
11. Bonnett, Anti-Racism, 45.
12. Garland and Rowe, Racism and Anti-Racism in Football, 5.
13. Garland and Rowe, Racism and Anti-Racism in Football, 6.
14. Fédération Internationale de Football Association, Good Practice Guide on Diversity and Anti-Discrimination, 52.
15. Back, Crabbe and Solomos, The Changing Face of Football, 43.
16. Ibid., 132.
17. Garland and Rowe, Racism and Anti-Racism in Football, 190.
18. Back, Crabbe and Solomos, The Changing Face of Football, 96.
19. Redhead, ‘Afterword’; Redhead, ‘Gigs Will Tear You Apart’.
20. Lawrence and Crawford, Digital Football Cultures.
21. Daniels, Cyber Racism; Brock, ‘From the Blackhand Side’.
22. Hylton and Lawrence, ‘“For Your Ears Only!’.
23. Bennett and Jönsson, ‘Klick It Out’; Kilvington and Price, ‘Tackling Social Media Abuse?’.
24. Daniels, ‘Race and Racism in Internet Studies’, 697.
25. Browne, ‘Digital Epidermalization’, 136.
26. Hacker, ‘Teaching Fairness to Artificial Intelligence’.
27. Hacker, Bacchini, and Lorusso, ‘Race, Again’.
28. Hacker, ‘Teaching Fairness to Artificial Intelligence’.
29. Lawrence, and Crawford, Digital Football Cultures.
30. Kilvington, and Price, ‘Tackling Social Media Abuse?’.
31. Football Association, ‘English Football Announces Social Media Boycott’.
32. Lawrence, ‘‘We Are the Boys from the Black Country!’.
33. Bonilla-Silva, ‘The Linguistics of Color Blind Racism’.