![Sample our Area Studies journals, sign in here to start your access, latest two full volumes FREE to you for 14 days]({"type":"image" , "src" : "/sda/5922/TOC-Subject-Sample-2021-Area-Studies.jpg"})
ABSTRACT
This article investigates the evolving relationship between the European Union (EU) and Turkey following the 2015 refugee crisis. It argues that post-crisis relations have become predominantly functional, measured by strategic EU-Turkey partnership based on interdependence as well as the EU’s relative retreat from political membership conditionality. This is particularly demonstrated by the March 2016 EU-Turkey ‘refugee deal’ whereby functional cooperation deepened amidst material and normative concessions that the EU granted Ankara. The article concludes that although functionalism is set to guide the relations beyond the question of Turkey’s EU accession, a future EU-Turkey external differentiated integration arrangement remains uncertain due to pending challenges.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author.
Notes on Contributor
Beken Saatçioğlu is Associate Professor of International Relations at MEF University, Istanbul. She holds a Ph.D. from the University of Virginia, and has been a post-doctoral fellow at Free University of Berlin’s Kolleg-Forschergruppe (KFG) Research College ‘The Transformative Power of Europe’. Her areas of research include EU conditionality and Europeanization, Turkey–EU relations and European foreign policy. Her publications have appeared in international edited volumes and journals including South European Society and Politics, Journal of Balkan and Near Eastern Studies, Democratization, Turkish Studies and Uluslararası İlişkiler.
Notes
1 Saatçioğlu, “How Closely.”
2 Aydın-Düzgit and Kaliber, “Encounters with Europe.”
3 See, in particular, the Commission’s progress reports on Turkey from 2013 onwards.
4 Kaya, “Right-wing Populism.”
5 European Parliament, “European Parliament Resolution of 6 July 2017,” point 8.
6 Aydıntaşbaş, “The Discreet Charm of Hypocrisy,” 2.
7 “Juncker waves ‘credible EU prospects’ at Balkans, but no fast membership.” Euractiv, September 13, 2017.
8 “EU Commission Member Hahn: Sweet Words are not Enough.” Bianet, January 12, 2018.
9 “‘You don’t understand’ Fury as Macron Brands Turkey Anti-European,” August 29, 2018. https://www.express.co.uk/news/world/1010174/emmanuel-macron-news-turkey-european-union-latest.
10 Schimmelfennig, Leuffen and Rittberger, “The European Union.”
11 Müftüler-Baç, “Turkey’s Future.”
12 Karakaş, “EU-Turkey”; Hürsoy, “On the Edge”; İçener, “Privileged Partnership”; and Turhan, “Thinking out of the Accession Box.”
13 Lecha, Tekin and Sökmen, “It Takes Two to Tango.”
14 European Commission, “Turkey 2015 Report”.
15 Schimmelfennig, Leuffen and Rittberger, “The European Union.”
16 Ibid., 779–80.
17 Müftüler-Baç, “Turkey’s Future,” 5.
18 Turhan, “Thinking out of the Accession Box,” 5.
19 Karakaş, “EU-Turkey,” 1067–68.
20 Türkeş-Kılıç, “Justifying Privileged Partnership,” 4–7, and Karakaş, “EU-Turkey.”
21 Börzel and Lebanidze, “The transformative power of Europe.”
22 Müftüler-Baç, “Turkey’s Future.”
23 For a comprehensive, thematic review of EU-Turkey relations, see, Aydın-Düzgit and Tocci, Turkey and the European Union.
24 Eurobarometer surveys conducted in the 2000s revealed that among all non-EU members from Eastern Europe and the Western Balkans, Turkey’s membership drew the lowest support level (28 percent) in Europe while opposition to it remained high at 59 percent (European Commission, “Eurobarometre 66,” 46).
25 Ülgen, “Trade as Turkey’s EU Anchor,” 4.
26 Aydıntaşbaş, “The Discreet Charm of Hypocrisy.”
27 Börzel and Risse, “The Transformative Power of Europe.”
28 Şenyuva, “Turkish Public Opinion and the EU Membership.” Also, according to a November 2017 survey conducted by Turkey’s Economic Development Foundation (İKV), an overwhelming majority of Turks support EU membership (78.9 percent) despite being extremely skeptical about its likelihood in the foreseeable future (68.8 percent) (http://www.ikv.org.tr/ikv.asp?ust_id=99&id=2029).
29 Şenyuva, “Turkish Public Opinion and the EU Membership,” 10.
30 See, inter alia, Yabancı, “The Future of EU-Turkey Relations” and Okyay and Zaragoza-Cristiani, “The Leverage of the Gatekeeper.”
31 See, inter alia, Kaya, “Right-wing Populism”; Şenyuva, “Turkish Public Opinion and the EU Membership”; and Lindgaard, “EU Public Opinion.”
32 See, inter alia, Turhan, “Thinking out of the Accession Box,” and Müftüler-Baç, “The Revitalization.” For more extended analyses, see, Benvenuti, “The Migration Paradox”; Okyay and Zaragoza-Cristiani, “The Leverage of the Gatekeeper”; Batalla Adam, “The EU-Turkey Deal”; Turhan, “Mülteci Krizinin AB-Türkiye İlişkilerine Etkileri” and Öner, “The Influence of the Economic Crisis.”
33 As stated in Article 80 of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union (TFEU): “The [asylum and immigration] policies of the Union … and their implementation shall be governed by the principle of solidarity and fair sharing of responsibility, including its financial implications, between the Member States”.
34 European Council, “EU-Turkey Statement, 29/11/2015.”
35 European Council, “EU-Turkey Statement – 18 March 2016.”
36 Ibid.
37 Greenhill, “Open Arms Behind Barred Doors.”
38 “Turkey’s Erdoğan threatened to flood Europe with migrants: Greek website.” Reuters, February 8, 2016.
39 “Turkey will call off migrant deal if EU fails to grant visa-free travel by June – PM.” Reuters, April 18, 2016.
40 Greenhill, “Open Arms Behind Barred Doors.”
41 Müftüler-Baç, “Turkey’s Future,” 18.
42 Ibid.
43 “Press Remarks by President Donald Tusk after the meeting of EU heads of state or government with Turkey.” 882/15, November 29, 2015. http://www.consilium.europa.eu/en/press/press-releases/2015/11/29-tusk-remarks-after-eu-turkey/.
44 European Commission, “Turkey 2016 Report,” 4.
45 European Council, “Outcome of the Council Meeting,” 9.
46 European Parliament, “European Parliament Resolution of 6 July 2017,” point 3.
47 Ibid., point 20.
48 Kubicek, “Political conditionality.”
49 European Council, “Negotiating Framework,” 7.
50 European Commission, “Turkey 2018 Report”; European Parliament, “European Parliament Resolution of 6 July 2017” and “European Parliament Resolution of 14 April 2016.”
51 Okyay and Zaragoza-Cristiani, “The Leverage of the Gatekeeper,” 64.
52 Füle, “EU-Turkey bound together.”
53 Müftüler-Baç and Çiçek, “A Comparative Analysis,” 23.
54 Schimmelfennig and Sedelmeier, “Governance by conditionality.”
55 “EU leaders ask Erdoğan to back radical refugee plan.” The Guardian, October 5, 2015.
56 “EU should not ‘harp on’ Turkey about human rights, says Jean-Claude Juncker.” The Telegraph, October 17, 2015.
57 In this respect, the fact that Merkel nearly vetoed Chapter 22 (“Regional Policy and Coordination of Structural Instruments”)’s opening during the summer of 2013 (citing the Turkish government’s intolerance vis-à-vis peaceful dissent, following the May-June Gezi protests) is particularly significant.
58 Okyay and Zaragoza-Cristiani, “The Leverage of the Gatekeeper,” 58.
59 European Parliament, “European Parliament Resolution of 14 April 2016.”
60 “Refugees and Turkey accession are ‘separate issues.’” EUobserver, March 17, 2016.
61 Kirişçi, “Ahead of an EU-Turkey summit.”
62 European Council, “Outcome of the Council Meeting,” 13.
63 “Erdoğan Calls for ‘New Page’ in Relations with Berlin Amid Strained Ties with Berlin.” Sputnik International, September 27, 2018.
64 Tocci, “Beyond the Storm.”
65 “Turkey says it would reject any deal with EU other than full membership.” The Independent, January 19, 2018.
66 İdiz, “Latest Turkey-EU talks.”
67 For a more detailed discussion, see, Böhler, Pelkmans and Selçuki, “Who Remembers Turkey’s Pre-Accession?”.
68 “Hahn Says EU, Turkey Should Look into ‘New Format of Cooperation.’” RFE/RL Report, April 24, 2017.
69 For an extended discussion on the challenges and opportunities of an upgraded CU, see, Saatçioğlu et al., “The Future of EU-Turkey Relations.”
70 Council of the European Union, “Council Conclusions on Enlargement and Stabilisation and Association Process,” 13.
71 Arısan Eralp, “The Unique Nature.”
72 Ülgen, “Trade as Turkey’s EU Anchor,” and Arısan Eralp, “The Unique Nature.”
73 European Commission, “Turkey 2018 Report.”
74 Saatçioğlu et al., “The Future of EU-Turkey Relations.”
75 Ülgen, “Trade as Turkey's EU Anchor”.
76 Tocci, “From the European Security Strategy”.