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ABSTRACT
Transitional justice (TJ) scholarship and practice often pins much hope on civil society. It generally assumes that civil society organisations demonstrate ‘civility’, have broad-based memberships, support liberal democratic values and promote TJ approaches based on liberal-legal justice strategies. Yet there is nothing inherently virtuous about civil society and in conflict-affected societies it often lacks these desired properties; it can be underdeveloped, unruly and disruptive. So, what role do, and should, ‘uncivil’ society groups play in TJ processes? To answer this question this article uses comparative case studies of the role of uncivil society groups in Bougainville and Timor-Leste. These cases exhibit similar broad cultural, socio-political and socio-economic characteristics. In both cases uncivil society groups are organised around societal divisions, attempt to operate as alternatives to the state, oppose liberal democracy and liberal-legal TJ processes and engage in unruly behaviour, including violence and criminality. These uncivil society groups are not regarded as internationally legitimate, but they nevertheless have strong local legitimacy, particularly when the state is absent or weak. Consequently, this article concludes that in conflict-affected societies it is necessary to engage with groups regarded as both civil and uncivil to promote locally legitimate and effective TJ, and peace more broadly.
Acknowledgements
I thank the anonymous referees and the journal editorial team for their comments and suggestions. I also thank Alex Shankland for sharing the work of he and his colleagues on ‘unruly politics’. This article forms part of a broader project, Political Reconciliation in the Asia-Pacific, which was funded by ARC DP 140102388. As part of that project, some of the material in this article was presented at a workshop on ‘Civil Society and Transitional Justice in Asia and the Pacific’ that I co-organised with Lia Kent at the Australian National University on 29–30 September 2016.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author.
Notes on contributor
Joanne Wallis is a Senior Lecturer in the College of Asia and the Pacific at the Australian National University. Her research focuses on peacebuilding, security and strategy in the Pacific Islands.
Notes
1 Kora Andrieu, ‘Civilizing Peacebuilding: Transitional Justice, Civil Society and the Liberal Paradigm’, Security Dialogue 41, no. 5 (2010): 537–558; Rama Mani, ‘Rebuilding an Inclusive Political Community After War’, Security Dialogue 36, no. 4 (2005): 511–526.
2 Centre for Civil Society, Report on Activities, July 2005–August 2006 (London: London School of Economics and Politics Science, 2006) http://eprints.lse.ac.uk/29398/1/CCSReport05_06.pdf.
3 Benjamin Gidron, Stanely N. Katz, and Yeheskel Hasenfel, Mobilizing for Peace: Conflict Resolution in Northern Ireland, Israel/Palestine, and South Africa (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002); Thania Paffenholz and Christoph Spurk, Civil Society, Civic Engagement, and Peacebuilding (Washington: World Bank, 2006); World Bank, Working Together: World Bank-Civil Society Relations (Washington: World Bank, 2003).
4 Catherine Barnes, Agents for Change: Civil Society Roles in Preventing War & Building Peace (The Hague: European Centre for Conflict Prevention, 2006); Robert Putnam, Making Democracy Work: Civic Traditions in Modern Italy (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993); World Bank, Civil Society and Peacebuilding; Potential, Limitations and Critical Factors (Washington: World Bank, 2007).
5 Kathryn Sikkink, The Justice Cascade: How Human Rights Prosecutions are Changing World Politics (New York: W.W. Norton & Company, Inc., 2011).
6 Pablo de Greiff, ‘Transitional Justice and Development,’ in Transitional Justice and Development: Making the Connections, ed. Pablo de Greiff and Roger Duthie (New York: Social Science Research Council, 2009), 9.
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8 David Crocker, ‘Transitional Justice and International Civil Society: Toward a Normative Framework’, Constellations 5, no. 4 (1998): 492–517, 493.
9 Kieran McEvoy, ‘Beyond Legalism: Towards a Thicker Understanding of Transitional Justice’, Journal of Law and Society 34, no. 4 (2007): 411–440, 434.
10 Crocker, ‘Transitional justice’, 492.
11 Edward Shills, ‘The Virtue of Civil Society’, Government and Opposition 26, no. 1 (1991): 3–20; Benjamin R. Barber, A Place for US: How to Make Society Civil and Democracy Strong (New York: Hill & Wang, 1998).
12 Aaron P. Boesenecker and Leslie Vinjamuri, ‘Lost in Translation? Civil Society, Faith-Based Organizations and the Negotiation of International Norms’, The International Journal of Transitional Justice 5, no. 3 (2011): 345–365.
13 Paul Gready and Simon Robins, ‘Rethinking Civil Society and Transitional Justice: Lessons from Social Movements and ‘New’ Civil Society’, International Journal of Transitional Justice 21, no. 7 (2017): 956–975, 956.
14 Michael W. Foley, ‘Cautionary Tales: Soft Intervention and Civil Society’, in Strengthening Peace in Post-Civil War States: Transforming Spoilers into Stakeholders, ed. Matthew Hoddie and Caroline Hartzell (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2010), 163–188, 164.
15 James Mayall, ‘The Legacy of Colonialism’, in Making States Work: State Failure and the Crisis of Governance, ed. Simon Chesterman et al. (Tokyo: United Nations University Press, 2005), 36–58, 56.
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17 UN, Report of the Secretary-General on the Rule of Law and Transitional Justice in Conflict and Post-Conflict Societies, UN Doc. S/2004/616, 24 August 2004, 3.
18 Naomi Roht-Arriaza, ‘The New Landscape of Transitional Justice’, in Transitional Justice in the Twenty-First Century: Beyond Truth Versus Justice, ed. Naomi Roht-Arriaza and Javier Mariezcurrena (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006), 1–16, 2.
19 Gready and Robins, ‘Rethinking civil society’, 958.
20 Christopher M. Hann, ‘Introduction: Political Society and Civil Anthropology,’ in Civil Society: Challenging Western Models, eds. Christopher M. Hann and Elizabeth Dunn (London: Routledge, 1996), 1–26.
21 Alex Shankland, et al., ‘Unruly Politics: A Manifesto’, mimeo (Brighton: Institute of Development Studies, 2011): 1.
22 Gready and Robins, ‘Rethinking Civil Society’, 959.
23 Ibid.
24 Alexander L. George and Andrew Bennett, Case Studies and Theory Development in the Social Sciences (Cambridge: MIT Press, 2005).
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26 Adam Przeworski and Henry Teune, The Logic of Comparative Social Inquiry (New York: John Wiley, 1970).
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29 Petr Kopecky, ‘Civil Society, Uncivil Society and Contentious Politics in Post-communist Europe’, in Uncivil Society? Contentious Politics in Post-communist Europe, ed. Petr Kopecky and Cas Mudde (London: Routledge, 2003), 1–17.
30 Orjuela, ‘Building Peace in Sri Lanka’, 196.
31 Kopecky, ‘Civil Society, Uncivil Society’, 7.
32 Putnam, Making Democracy Work.
33 Willemijn Verkoren and Mathijs van Leeumen, ‘Civil Society in Fragile Contexts’, in The Handbook of Global Security Policy, ed. Mary Kaldor and Iavor Rangelov (Chichester: John Wiley & Sons, 2014), 463–481, 465.
34 M. Salamonio, De Principatu (Milan: Giuffre Editore, 1955), 27–29.
35 John Locke, Two Treatises of Government (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1960), 95; John Keane, Global Civil Society? (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003).
36 Kopecky, ‘Civil Society, Uncivil Society’, 5.
37 Paul Gready and Simon Robins, ‘From Transitional to Transformative Justice: A New Agenda for Practice’, The International Journal of Transitional Justice 8 (2014): 339–361, 343.
38 Jenny Pearce, ‘The International Community and Peacebuilding’, Development 48, no. 3 (2005): 41–49.
39 ECCP, European Conference on the Role of Civil Society in the Prevention of Armed Conflict, Report of a conference held at Dublin Castle, Dublin, 31 March–2 April (Utrecht: European Centre for Conflict Prevention, 2004); Verkoren and van Leeumen, ‘Civil Society in Fragile Contexts’.
40 UN Secretary General, In Larger Freedom: Towards Development, Security and Human Rights for All, UN Doc. A/59/2005, 21 March 2005; Foley, ‘Cautionary Tales’.
41 Verkoren and van Leeumen, ‘Civil Society in Fragile Contexts’; Sarah Crowther, ‘The Role of NGOs, Local and International, in Post-war Peacebuilding’, Committee for Conflict Transformation Support Newsletter, no. 15 (2001); Gready and Robins, ‘Rethinking Civil Society’; Orjuela, ‘Building Peace in Sri Lanka’.
42 John Keane, Civil Society: Old Images, New Visions (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1998), 135.
43 Gready and Robins, ‘Rethinking Civil Society’, 959.
44 Shankland et al., ‘Unruly Politics’; see also Akshay Khanna, ‘Seeing Citizen Action through an ‘Unruly’ Lens’, Development 55, no. 2 (2012): 162–172.
45 Roberto Belloni, ‘Civil Society in War-to-democracy Transitions’, in From War to Democracy: Dilemmas of Peacebuilding, ed. Anna K. Jarstad and Timothy D. Sisk (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008), 182–210, 186–187.
46 Simone Chambers and Jeffrey Kopstein, ‘Bad Civil Society’, Political Theory 29, no. 6 (2001): 837–865, 838.
47 Larry Diamond, ‘Rethinking Civil Society: Toward Democratic Consolidation’, Journal of Democracy 5, no. 3 (1994): 4–17, 6.
48 Kofi Annan, ‘Address at the Opening of the Signing Conference for the United Nations Convention Against Transnational Organized Crime’, Palermo, December 12, 2000, http://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/about-unodc/speeches/speech_2000-12-12_1.html; Keane, Civil Society: Old Images; Leigh A. Payne, Uncivil Movements: The Armed Right Wing and Democracy in Latin America (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2000).
49 Belloni, ‘Civil Society in War-to-democracy Transitions’, 183; Annan, ‘Address at the Opening of the Signing Conference’.
50 Chambers and Kopstein, ‘Bad Civil Society’, 839–840; Ami Pedahzur and Leonard Weinberg, ‘Modern European Democracy and its Enemies: The Threat of the Extreme Right’, Totalitarian Movements and Political Religions 2, no. 1 (2001): 52–72.
51 Laurence Whitehead, ‘Bowling in the Bronx: The Uncivil Interstices Between Civil and Political Society’, Democratization 4, no. 1 (1997): 94–114.
52 Shankland, et al., ‘Unruly Politics’, 1.
53 Ibid.
54 Roberto Belloni, ‘Civil Society in War-to-democracy Transitions’, 187.
55 Ibid., 188.
56 Nelson Kasfir, ‘Civil Society, the State and Democracy in Africa’, Commonwealth & Comparative Politics 36, no. 2 (1998): 123–149.
57 Beatrice Pouligny, ‘Civil Society and Post-Conflict Peacebuilding: Ambiguities of International Programmes Aimed at Building ‘New’ Societies’, Security Dialogue 36, no. 4 (2005): 495–510; Verkoren and van Leeumen, ‘Civil Society in Fragile Contexts’.
58 Verkoren and van Leeumen, ‘Civil Society in Fragile Contexts’; Mathijs van Leeuwen and Willemijn Verkoren, ‘The Complexity of Civil Society Building: Key Challenges for Enhancing Post-conflict Civil Society Approaches’, Journal of Peacebuilding and Development 7, no. 1 (2012): 81–94.
59 Shankland, et al., ‘Unruly Politics’, 1.
60 Belloni, ‘Civil Society in War-to-democracy Transitions’, 188.
61 Ibid., 190.
62 Kathleen Collins, The Logic of Clan Politics in Central Asia: The Impact of Regime Transformation (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006); Perviz Mullojanov, ‘Civil Society and Peacebuilding’, in Politics of Compromise: The Tajikistan Peace Process, ed. Kamoludin Abdullaev and Catherine Barnes (London: Conciliation Resources 2001), http://c-r.org/resources/politics-compromise-tajikistan-peace-process; Nat J. Colletta, Markus Kostner, and Ingo Wiederhofer, ‘Disarmament, Demobilization, and Reintegration: Lessons and Liabilities in Reconstruction’, in When States Fail: Causes and Consequences, ed. Robert Rotberg (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2004), 170–181; Peter Uvin and Charles Mironko, ‘Western and Local Approaches to Justice in Rwanda’, Global Governance 9, no. 2 (2003): 129–231.
63 Belloni, ‘Civil Society in War-to-democracy Transitions’, 190.
64 Christoph Spurk, ‘Understanding Civil Society’, in Civil Society and Peacebuilding: A Critical Assessment, ed. Thania Paffenholz (Boulder: Lynne Rienner, 2010), 3–28.
65 Thierry Volery, ‘Ethnic Entrepreneurship: A Theoretical Framework’ in Handbook of Research on Ethnic Minority Entrepreneurship, ed. Leo-Paul Dana (Cheltenham: Edward Elgar, 2007), 30–41.
66 Gready and Robins, ‘Rethinking Civil Society’; Gready and Robins, ‘From Transitional to Transformative Justice’.
67 Mary Anderson, Do No Harm: How Aid Can Support Peace or War (Boulder: Lynne Rienner, 1999); Roberto Belloni, ‘Civil Society and Peacebuilding in Bosnia and Herzegovina’, Journal of Peace Research 38, no. 2 (2001): 163–180.
68 Pouligny, ‘Civil Society and Post-Conflict Peacebuilding’, 499.
69 Randall Pulijek-Shank and Willemijn Verkoren, ‘Civil Society in a Divided Society: Linking Legitimacy and Ethnicness of Civil Society Organisations in Bosnia-Herzegovina’, Cooperation and Conflict 52, no. 2 (2017): 184–202.
70 Mark C. Suchman, ‘Managing Legitimacy: Strategic and Institutional Approaches’, Academy of Management Review 20, no. 3 (1995): 571–610, 574.
71 Andrieu, ‘Civilizing Peacebuilding’, 554; Paul Gready, ‘Reconceptualising Transitional Justice: Embedded and Distant Justice’, Conflict, Security and Development 5, no. 1 (2005): 2–21.
72 Ali Wardak, ‘Building a Post-war Justice System in Afghanistan’, Crime, Law, and Social Change 41, no. 4, (2004): 319–341; Tracy Dexter and Phillippe Ntahombaye, The Role of Informal Justice Systems in Fostering The Rule of Law in Post-Conflict Situations; The Case of Burundi (Geneva: Centre for Humanitarian Dialogue, 2005), https://www.files.ethz.ch/isn/26971/CaseofBurundi.pdf.
73 Kieran McEvoy and Lorna McGregor, eds., Transitional Justice from Below: Grassroots Activism and the Struggle for Change (Portland: Hart Publishing, 2008).
74 Regan, Light Intervention.
75 Joanne Wallis, Constitution making during State building (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2014).
76 Bougainville Peace Agreement, between the Papua New Guinea government, BPC, BIPG, BRA and BRF (30 August 2001), cl. 331 and 340(d); Papua New Guinea, Constitution of the Independent State of Papua New Guinea (16 September 1975), s. 344.
77 Bougainville Constitutional Commission, Report of the Bougainville Constitutional Commission: Report on the Third and Final Draft of the Bougainville Constitution (Buka: Bougainville Constitutional Commission, 2004), 251.
78 Sister Loraine Garasu quoted in Pat Howley, Breaking Spears and Mending Hearts: Peacemakers and Restorative Justice in Bougainville (London: Zed Books, 2002), 182.
79 Bougainville Constitutional Commission, Report of the Bougainville Constitutional Commission, 252.
80 Bougainville Constitutional Commission, Discussion of Recommendations: Minutes of Full BCC Meetings, Friday 15 November to Monday 9 December (Buka: Bougainville Constitutional Commission, 2002), 114–115.
81 The Constitution of the Autonomous Region of Bougainville (2004), s. 187 and Sch. 6.1 and 6.2, s.187.
82 Francis Ona, on behalf of the Interim government of the Republic of Bougainville, REQUEST FOR RECOGNITION OF BOUGAINVILLE AS AN INDEPENDENT REPUBLIC, letter to diplomatic missions in Port Moresby and foreign governments, enclosing the ‘Declaration of Independence of the Republic of Bougainville’, 16 May 1990. This declaration was later annulled by the Honiara Declaration on Peace, Reconciliation and Rehabilitation on Bougainville, between the government of Papua New Guinea and the BIG/BRA, 23 January 1991.
83 ‘Me’ekamui’ is similar to ‘sacred land’ in the Nasioi language of central Bougainville.
84 Wallis, Constitution Making During State Building.
85 Regan, Light Intervention, 115.
86 Personal communication from a village chief and prominent traditional peacemaker, 27 January 2011.
87 Regan, Light Intervention, 117.
88 Anthony J. Regan, ‘Bougainville Update’, paper presented at the State, Society and Governance in Melanesia Seminar Series, College of Asia and the Pacific, Australian National University, 27 November 2012.
89 Regan, Light Intervention, 117. For Musingku’s perspective see: The Real Story of the Sovereign Nation of Bougainville Islands & the Twin Kingdoms of Papa’ala and Me’ekamui, June 2012, http://www.ourbougainville.org/.
90 John Cox, Financing the End-Time Harvest: Pyramid Schemes and Prosperity Gospels in Papua New Guinea, State, Society and Governance in Melanesia Discussion Paper 2009/5 (Canberra: Australian National University, 2009), 7.
91 Raymond Masono, Acting Chief Administrator, Bougainville Administration, speaking at ‘Building Sustainable Peace in Bougainville Conference’, Hutjena Secondary School, Buka, 13 June 2007; Rose Pihei, John Bosco and Jobson Misang, speaking at ‘South Bougainville 2005–2008: Local Conflict, Reconciliation, Weapons Disposal and Peace-building’, State, Society and Governance in Melanesia seminar, Australian National University, Canberra, 25 November 2008, http://asiapacific.anu.edu.au/news-events/podcasts/south-bougainville-2005-2008-conflict-reconciliation-disarmament-and-peace#.W2WXCtIzZEY.
92 Regan, Light Intervention, 124.
93 Interview with a former BRA commander and member of the ABG, 2 November 2010; personal communication from an international academic, 24 January 2011.
94 Wallis, Constitution Making.
95 ‘Serious’ crimes were defined as including: genocide; crimes against humanity; war crimes; and certain domestic crimes of torture, murder and sexual offences. These crimes must have occurred between 1 January and 25 October 1999. UNTAET Regulation No. 2000/15, On the Establishment of Panels with Exclusive Jurisdiction over Serious Criminal Offences, UN Doc. UNTAET/REG/2000/15, 6 June 2000.
96 Constitution of the Democratic Republic of Timor-Leste (2002), s. 163(1).
97 John Braithwaite, Hilary Charlesworth, and Aderito Soares, Networked Governance of Freedom and Tyranny: Peace in Timor-Leste (Canberra: ANU E-Press, 2012).
98 UN, Report to the Secretary-General of the Commission of Experts to review the Prosecution of Serious Violations of Human Rights in Timor-Leste (then East Timor) in 1999, 26 May 2005, Annex II to Letter dated 24 June 2005 from the Secretary-General addressed to the President of the Security Council, UN Doc. S/2005/458, 15 July 2005.
99 UN Security Council S/Res/1704, On the Situation in Timor-Leste, 25 August 2006.
100 Independent Comprehensive Needs Assessment Team, The Justice System of Timor-Leste: An Independent Comprehensive Needs Assessment (Dili: Independent Comprehensive Needs Assessment Team, 2009); UN, Report of the Security Council mission to Timor-Leste 3–6 November 2012, UN Doc. S/2012/889, 28 November 2012.
101 Sisto do Santos, Timor-Leste National Alliance for an International Tribunal Letter to UNSG, 14 August 2012, http://easttimorlegal.blogspot.com.au/2012/08/timor-leste-national-alliance-for.html; Timor-Leste National Alliance for an International Tribunal, An Open letter in response to the CTF report, 18 July 2008, http://etan.org/news/2008/07anti.htm.
102 UNTAET Regulation No. 2001/10, On the Establishment of a Commission for Reception, Truth and Reconciliation in East Timor, UN Doc. UNTAET/REG/2001/10, 13 July 2001, extended by Law No. 13/2004 and Law No. 11/2005.
103 CAVR, Chega!
104 James Scambary, A Survey of Gangs and Youth Groups in Dili, Timor-Leste, report commissioned by Australia’s Agency for International Development, AusAID, 15 September 2006, http://www.etan.org/etanpdf/2006/Report_Youth_Gangs_in_Dili.pdf.
105 Damien Kingsbury, East Timor: The Price of Liberty (New York: Palgrave MacMillan, 2009), 57.
106 Jill Jolliffe, ‘Psychological Healing as a Prerequisite to Good Governance in East Timor’, in Democratic Governance in Timor-Leste: Reconciling the local and the national, ed. David Mearns (Darwin: Charles Darwin University Press, 2008), 14.
107 UN, Progress Report of the Secretary-General on the United Nations Transitional Administration in East Timor, UN Security Council, UN Doc. S/2001/719, 24 July 2001; Sara Niner, Xanana: Leader of the Struggle for Independent Timor-Leste (North Melbourne: Australian Scholarly Publishing Pty Ltd, 2009).
108 Jill Jolliffe, ‘Timorese Police Mimic Violence of Ex-masters’, Asia Times, January 8, 2004, cited in Andrea Katalin Molnar, Timor Leste: Politics, history, and culture (Abingdon: Routledge, 2009), 110.
109 ‘CPD-RDTL continues to be a thorn in the side of the Timor-Leste Government’, East Timor Law & Justice Bulletin, December 15, 2012, http://www.easttimorlawandjusticebulletin.com/2012/12/cpd-rdtl-continues-to-be-thorn-in-side.html.
110 ‘CPD-RDTL accused of slaughterning the people’s livestock in Fatuberliu, Defence Force Chief warns against protests against the State’, East Timor Law & Justice Bulletin, November 23, 2012, http://www.easttimorlawandjusticebulletin.com/2012/11/cpd-rdtl-accused-of-slaughtering.html.
111 ‘Prime Minister Gusmao threatens to wring the necks of CPD-RDTL dissidents like chickens and sack public servants involved in the group’, East Timor Law & Justice Bulletin, April 18, 2013, http://www.easttimorlawandjusticebulletin.com/2013/04/prime-minister-gusmao-threatens-to.html.
112 Fundasaun Mahein, ‘Rule of Law or Rule of the Deal in Timor-Leste?’, 7 March 2014, http://www.fundasaunmahein.org/2014/03/07/rule-of-law-or-rule-of-the-deal-in-timor-leste/; Democratic Republic of Timor-Leste, Resolution of the National Parliament, Rejecting attempts at instability and threats to the rule of law, 4 March 2014, http://www.jornal.gov.tl/public/docs/2014/serie_1/serie1_no9.pdf.
113 ‘Ex-Guerillas Threaten Political Stability in East Timor’, Global Voices, April 1, 2014, https://globalvoices.org/2014/04/01/ex-guerrillas-threaten-political-stability-in-east-timor/#.
114 Geoffrey C. Gunn, Historical Dictionary of East Timor (Lanham: The Scarecrow Press, 2011).
115 Scambary, A Survey of Gangs and Youth Groups in Dili.
116 ‘Former East Timor guerrilla leader and opposition figure Mauk Moruk killed in security operation, government says’, Sydney Morning Herald, August 10, 2015, http://www.abc.net.au/news/2015-08-09/former-east-timor-guerrilla-leader-mauk-moruk-killed/6684058.
117 Anna Powles and Jose KL Sousa Santos, ‘Xanana Gusmao-Mauk Moruk: Timor struggles with its past and future’, The Interpreter, December 5, 2013, https://www.lowyinstitute.org/the-interpreter/xanana-gusmao-mauk-moruk-timor-struggles-its-past-and-future?collcc=2682660872.
118 US State Department, Timor-Leste 2015 Human Rights Report, https://www.state.gov/documents/organization/253017.pdf; Amnesty International, Timor-Leste: Still No Justice for Past Human Rights Violations, Amnesty International Submission to the UN Universal Periodic Review, 2016, https://www.amnesty.org/download/Documents/ASA5745132016ENGLISH.pdf.
119 Mahmood Mamdani, Citizen and Subject (Kampala: Fountain Publishers, 1996), 1.
120 Alex Shankland, ‘OccupyLSX, unruly politics and subversive ruliness’, OpenDemocracyUK, January 19, 2012, https://www.opendemocracy.net/ourkingdom/alex-shankland/occupylsx-unruly-politics-and-subversive-ruliness.
121 Gready and Robins, ‘Rethinking Civil Society’, 970.
122 Hann, ‘Introduction’, 1; John L. Comaroff and Jean Comaroff, Civil Society and the Political Imagination in Africa: Critical Perspectives (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1999).
123 Adam B. Seligman, The Idea of Civil Society (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1992).
124 David Lewis, Civil Society in non-Western Contexts: Reflections on the ‘Usefulness’ of a Concept (Civil Society Working Paper series 13, Centre for Civil Society, London School of Economics and Political Science, London, UK, 2001); Hann, ‘Introduction’; Renee Jeffery, Lia Kent, and Joanne Wallis, ‘Reconceiving the Roles of Religious Civil Society Organisations in Transitional Justice: Evidence from the Solomon Islands, Timor-Leste and Bougainville’, International Journal of Transitional Justice 11, no. 3 (2017): 378–399.
125 Kopecky, ‘Civil Society, Uncivil Society’, 4.
126 Foley, ‘Cautionary Tales’; Nicholas R. Micinski, ‘NGO Frequent Flyers: Youth Organisations and the Undermining of Reconciliation in Bosnia and Herzegovina’, Journal of Peacebuilding & Development 11, no. 1 (2016): 99–104.
127 Interview with a Timorese intellectual, 12 May 2010.
128 Lia Kent, ‘Engaging with ‘The Everyday’: Towards a More Dynamic Conception of Hybrid Transitional Justice’, in Hybridity on the Ground in Peacebuilding and Development: Critical Conversations, ed. Joanne Wallis, et al. (Canberra: ANU Press, 2018), pp. 145–161; Sally Engle Merry, Human Rights and Gender Violence: Translating International Law into Local Justice (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2006).
129 Joanne Wallis, Renee Jeffery, and Lia Kent, ‘Political Reconciliation in Timor Leste, Solomon Islands and Bougainville: The Dark Side of Hybridity’, Australian Journal of International Affairs 70, no. 2 (2016): 159–178.